A user-friendly resource for researchers, advocates, and civil society
ACB is proud to release a collation of the past two decades of research done on pesticide use in South Africa, in the form of a searchable (and downloadable) database, below.
For the first time, this extensive body of scientific evidence of the harm caused by the chemicals used in agricultural systems and other contexts in our country can be accessed in one place. We anticipate that this handy reference will bolster collective efforts to push the government to prioritise the urgent complete overhaul of the regulatory framework governing the use of pesticides, ensuring its rigorous implementation and heeding the persistent calls for the banning of the most hazardous chemicals and the phase-out of others. The accompanying briefing and introduction provide more detail.
In the database below, each entry is classifiable by author, title, publication date, and journal, among other fields, with links provided to the publications that are freely accessible. You can also insert keywords into the search function and download the table as a spreadsheet for offline use.
Please note that below the Compendium, we have included a table of all the pesticides that appear in the papers. In this instance, we indicate whether the pesticide is designated as a highly hazardous pesticide (HHP), and whether it is banned in South Africa and/or the European Union (EU), referencing Unpoison’s framework.[1] Notably, of the 194 HHPs in use in South Africa, 116 are banned in the EU. At this stage, regarding pesticides that are not HHPs, we do not include information with respect to whether they are banned in the EU, but this could be added in the future.
The database also includes full abstracts, key findings on harm, the research timeline, geographical focus, and research methodology. Additionally, the compendium captures each paper’s technical or policy recommendations, suggestions for further research, and references to useful tools or methodologies. Where available, it notes instances where the evidence was formally presented to the government, including how it was received, though such information is limited. In cases of human harm, the type of harm suffered is specified. Similarly, instances of environmental harm include details on the nature of the pollution or ecological concern. Please note that the pesticide names/classes field includes actual pesticides, specific ingredients, and metabolites (harmful product chemicals that result when a pesticide breaks down in the environment).
While comprehensive, the Compendium may not be exhaustive and can be updated as new research becomes available. For example, since the studies on dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane (DDT) and dichlorodiphenyldichloroethylene (DDE) (mainly for malaria vector control) are so numerous, we opted to only include a small selection.
The Compendium categorises studies focused on human health according to the type of pesticide use under investigation. Most of the papers examine exposure resulting from agricultural activities, particularly crop protection, as well as from domestic pest control. A smaller number of pesticides are used in alien vegetation control. A significant portion of the research focuses on children, who are particularly susceptible to pesticide toxicity due to their smaller body size (resulting in higher exposure per kilogram), immature metabolism, and developing organ systems.
In addition, the database allows one to search for papers falling into categories as follows:
Source of the pesticide and its potential use:
- agricultural use for crop protection
- animal dipping
- weed control in public spaces
- domestic use of pesticides for insect and rodent control
- domestic use for gardening purposes
- alien vegetation control
- malaria control
- pesticides linked to wastewater contamination
- pesticides from the manufacturing of pesticides
For human harm, nature of the study:
- workplace study
- residential study
- dietary study
- market study
For human harm, source of human exposure:
- inhalation
- pesticide ingestion
- a combination of soil ingestion and inhalation
- dermal exposure
- In utero exposure
- a combination of several sources
For environmental/human harm suffered due to agricultural activity, source of pesticide contamination or exposure:
- crop residue
- direct exposure in the field
- exposure to fomites
- spray drift, pesticide runoff from fields
- combination of the three above sources of contamination
- pollution from sewage works
For environmental harm, the environmental element affected:
- soil
- freshwater
- seawater
- air
- combination of the above
We welcome suggestions for additions of new or missing research to this database via email, comms@acbio.org.za. Please do get in touch to give us feedback or let us know how you have used the database.
Compendium of studies on pesticides in use in South Africa
You can scroll vertically using your mouse/track pad and horizontally using the arrows on the left and right. Below is a further table that provides a list of all pesticides studied in this database and their HHP status, where applicable, and a list of acronyms.| Author | Title | Date | Peer reviewed/ source | Affiliated institutions | Abstract | Pesticides name/ classes | Evidence of hazard/ harm | Date of study | Location (geographical /sectoral scope) | Methods/source of data (e.g. water sample, soil sample, lab research; where research done, etc.) | Source of pesticide & use | Human harm | Nature of study (for human harm) | Route of exposure (human) | Contamination modality (for agriculture) | Environmental impact | Environmental element affected | Technical/ policy recommendations | Guidance for further studies & frameworks | Modality of evidence (presented to Dep. of Agri) | Government response/ action | Paper classification |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| African Centre for Biodiversity | Letter of Demand to Minister Steenhuisen | 5 December 2024 | Letter of demand | Submitted on behalf of ACB, Women on Farms Project (WFP), Commercial Stevedoring, Agricultural and Allied Workers Union (CSAAWU), groundwork, Friends of the Earth SA, Khanyisa/Kouga Workers Forum & Trust for Community Outreach and Education (TCOE) Professor Leslie London, Professor Andrea Rother, and Dr. Cindy Stephens) | The petitioners request government to ban the acquisition, disposal, sale, or use in any form of the registered agricultural remedy known as Terbufos, an organophosphate pesticide used in agriculturelay. It also lays out a history of ongoing abject regulatory failure and commercial conflicts of interest in the governance of hazardous substances that have resulted in highly toxic, restricted chemicals ending up in domestic settings and informal food outlets. The paper brings forth compelling evidence of harm linked to the use of pesticides in SA (all papers include din this compendium) | Terbufos | This restricted substance is registered exclusively for use in the agricultural sector, including for use on maize, potatoes, dry beans, and sorghum. However, it is widely available and can be bought in spaza shops and through street traders – as a so-called ‘street pesticide’ for domestic use in townships and informal settlements to control rats, as a result of the collapse of essential service delivery to the urban poor. Terbufos has been banned in the Southern African Development Community (SADC) by Angola, Comoros, the Democratic Republic of the Congo, Madagascar, Malawi, Mauritius, Mozambique, Namibia, the Seychelles, Tanzania, and Zambia. Botswana’s ban came into effect on 1st December. Zimbabwe has not imported any Terbufos since 2002. | NA | NA | NA | NA | Terbufos has neurotoxic effects and is particularly dangerous to children and adolescents. | NA | NA | NA | NA | NA | The coalition of organisations petitioned Minister Steenhuisen to issue a ban on Terbufos immediately, and other HPPs within a fixed six months, for implementation in the public interest, and to protect the right to life and right to an environment of unknown numbers of persons who may be exposed to and possibly killed by this chemical if such bans are not implemented. The Minister of Agriculture must also take steps to prevent Terbufos and HPPs from being substituted by an equally toxic agricultural remedy once they are banned. | Advocacy paper or report | |||
| African Centre for Biodiversity, Commercial Stevedoring, Agricultural and Allied Workers Union (CSAAWU); Women on Farms Project (WFP); groundWork, Trust for Community Outreach and Education (TCOE) | Highly hazardous pesticides and GMOs: SA government’s legislative sleight of hand allows ongoing assault on our food system and people’s health | 1 February 2025 | Policy paper | NA | The legislative framework to regulate chemical remedies in SA is outdated, fragmented, and ineffective. Policy and regulatory reforms to date have taken place within a condemned and hopelessly antiquated framework and remain contradictory and untransparent. They maintain a system that consistently and systematically violates the human rights of all South Africans and undermines SA’s 2010 Pesticide Management Policy. A large and growing body of evidence points to the clear linkages between pesticide exposure and harm to the environment and people. and serious health effects on the skin, eyes, liver, and kidneys, as well as the cardiovascular, endocrine, and nervous systems (Orellana, 2023). This growing concern has resulted in globally agreed definitions and increased global commitments to phase out and eliminate highly hazardous pesticides (HHPs), along with prioritising alternatives to the use of hazardous chemicals in agricultural production. Despite regulatory reforms that specify the phase-out of HHPs, these regulations provide loopholes to sustain the continued and unconstitutional use of toxic HHPs. We are now confronted with several published toxicological risk assessments (RAs), as part of applications for derogation of glufosinateammonium (GLA), in response to which we are submitting these objections. If approved, this will set the tone for future greenlighting of HHPs, flooding South Africans with more toxic chemicals, with no end in sight. Therefore, it is vital that these applications are rejected. | Glufosinate-ammonium | NA | NA | Literature review, stakeholder interviews | NA | Since glufosinate irreversibly inhibits glutamine synthetase (GS), leading to intracellular accumulation of ammonia, hyperammonemia is considered one of the main mechanisms of GLA toxicity in humans (Donthi and Kumar, 2022). It is an HHP because it can cause reproductive toxicity, neurotoxicity, and cardiovascular effects. It is also capable of causing damage to developing foetuses. | NA | NA | ACB urges government to: Reject these applications, prioritising human and environmental health over business interests and false claims, and prioritising alternatives to chemical-basedagriculture, thus setting the tone for the future of agricultural production in SA.Maintain its commitments to phase out and ban HHPs. Linked to this, the criteria used for regulatory purposesmust be made available, including how chemicals are identified for phase-out and related periods. Make available information regarding assessing the viability of using alternative products/techniques as the United Nations Special Rapporteur recommends. Urgently repeal Act 36 and its regulations. The incremental, contradictory, and delayed reforms that have taken place, including the 2023 Regulations, undermine the Constitution and the 2010 Pesticide Management Policy. Begin a process for a comprehensive and complete overhaul of the legislative framework governing agricultural remedies to reflect the realities of South Africa. • Ensure the decision-making processes regarding agricultural remedies are transparent and adequately allow for public engagement. As part of a complete repeal and restructure of the pesticide regulatory framework in SA, an independent body should be established, made up of multidisciplinary experts appointed by the president, to make decisions regarding pesticide use, registration, renewal, etc., in the country. Currently, the decision-making structure is inherently unconstitutional as it does not guarantee fair administrative decision-making. • In terms of regulating pesticides in the country, shift from a risk-based approach to a hazard-based approach. This recognises the property of the compound independent of exposure, following the example taken by the EU. This is better aimed at ensuring that the rights embedded in the Constitution are centred and realised. • Ensure the smooth transition towards a socially just and ecologically sustainable food system, which considers SA’s socio-economic, cultural, and ecological realities and shifts its current wholly inequitable food system towards one that recognises and aligns the agricultural and food system in South Africa with the rights enshrined in the South African Constitution. | Advocacy paper or report | |||||||
| ACB | Review and reregistration of toxic pesticide 2,4-D in terms of the Fertilizers, Farm Feeds, Seeds and Remedies Act 36 of 1947 | 2023 | ACB website | Centre for Environmental and Occupational Health Research (CEOHR), University of Cape Town Co-operative and Policy Alternative Center, Environmental Monitoring Group, Foundation for Human Rights, Good Food Network, Inyanda National Land Movement, Khanyisa Education and Development Trust, Masifundise Development Trust, Project Biome, Public Health Association South Africa, Rural Women’s Assembly, South African Food Sovereignty Campaign, South African Organic Sector Organisation, Trust for Community Outreach and Education, Tshintsha Amakhaya, UnPoison, Women on Farms, Zingisa Educational Trust, & EATegrity. | The Registrar is requested to institute a review in terms of section 4 of Act 36 of 1947 into the continued registration of 2,4-D. In this review, interested and affected parties must be afforded an opportunity to make submissions advocating for the cancellation of the registration or the restriction of the uses to which 2,4-D can be put. All information furnished to the Registrar in its decision to authorise and renew the authorisation of 2,4-D shall be made available to members of the public, with sufficient opportunity given to consider this information to enable informed public participation.1 The ACB reiterates that 2,4-D must be classified as a highly hazardous pesticide and for it to be banned along with other pesticides that are highly hazardous.2 | 2,4_D | 2,4-D is associated with reproductive damage in males and auditory damage in the developing child. In 2015, the WHO IARC confirmed its 1987 classification of 2,4-D as group 2B, a possible human carcinogen. Factors that contribute to non-Hodgkin’s lymphoma (NHL) – a cancer of the lymph nodes – were considered, including oxidative stress and immunosuppression. The conclusion reached was that evidence that 2,4-D induces oxidative stress that can operate in humans is strong; that it causes immunosuppression is moderate, and that it is genotoxic and modulates receptor activity is weak. Prenatal exposure to the herbicide 2,4-D has been found to be associated with deficits in auditory processing during infancy. 2,4-D has been associated with haemal, liver, and kidney impacts. Men who work with 2,4-D are at risk for abnormally shaped sperm and thus fertility problems and evidence of developmental neurotoxicity is discussed in several published journal articles. | NA | South Africa; global | Research | Agriculture (crop protection) | Impacts of 2,4-D include: cancer, oxidative stress, immunosuppression, impact on the auditory function in infants, liver and kidney issues, reproductive health effects, and neurological health impacts. | NA | NA | 2,4-D and other herbicides, such as glyphosate, used in conjunction with GM crop plants, are contributing to the development of superweeds that threaten biodiversity, agriculture and the biotech industry itself. Weed resistance to herbicides, especially multiple-herbicide resistance, poses a serious threat to global food production. 2,4-D is routinely found in non-target areas whereit affects biodiversity. For example, in a review of scientific literature on 2,4-D in 2018, findings demonstrate that 2,4-D is present in surface water of regions where its usage is high. The highest concentrations of 2,4-D were detected in soil, air and surface water surrounded by crop fields. 2,4-D is routinely found in non-target areas where it affects biodiversity. For example, in a review of scientific literature on 2,4-D in 2018, findings demonstrate that 2,4-D is present in surface water of regions where its usage is high. The highest concentrations of 2,4-D were detected in soil, air and surface water surrounded by crop fields. | Air, water & soil | ACB argued that 2,4-D is an HHP and should be banned. The review of its registration should be based on constitutional imperatives regarding the duty to take all relevant information into account; the duty to protect and promote the rights in the bill of rights; the right to life; and environmental rights. ACB put forward arguments for why 2,4-D should be considered an HHP and banned. After the government announcement of its intention to phase out HHPs by June 2024 (which never happened), the ACB pointed out however that this proposed ban is directed only at the active ingredients and formulations that meet the criteria of carcinogenicity, mutagenicity, and reproductive toxicity categories 1A or 1B of the Global Harmonised System (GHS) of Classification and Labelling of Chemicals. ACB presents arguments as to why this classification should not be restricted to categories 1A or 1B of the GHS and be expanded to include other hazard classes, based on current scientific evidence of adverse impacts on human and animal health, the precautionary principle embedded in national environmental law, international obligations, and best practice. | ACB is of the view that sufficient evidence exists that 2,4-D must be classified as an HHP and be banned along with other HHPs. ACB recommended that the Registrar institute a review in terms of section 4 of Act 36 of 1947 into the continued registration of 2,4-D. In this review, interested and affected parties must be afforded an opportunity to make submissions advocating for the cancellation of the registration or the restriction of the uses to which 2,4-D can be put. All information furnished to the Registrar in its decision to authorise and renew the authorisation of 2,4-D should be made available to members of the public, with the sufficient opportunity given to consider this information to enable informed public participation. | Presented to the Registrar of the GMO Act. | In January 2024, the ACB followed up with the Registrar’s office, and at the end of January, received a written response, referencing the Globally Harmonised Systems (GHS) and the European Chemicals Agency (ECHA) classification and labelling of chemicals; pointing out these two bodies could not establish links between 2,4-D and cancer, oxidative stress, immunosuppression, endocrine disruption, reproductive damage in males and auditory damage of the developing child. The Registrar requested the ACB to provide additional information, which ACB did. No further response was forthcoming so the ACB sent a follow up letter in December 2024 to the Minister of Agriculture, John Steenhuizen. There has been no substantive response. | Report/working paper/book – policy | |
| ACB; Linzi L & Mayet, M. | 2,4-D GM maize and the regulatory anomalies regarding GMOs and associated pesticides: The case for categorising 2,4-D as a highly hazardous pesticide in South Africa | 2023 | ACB website | The ACB has resisted applications for authorisation of several GM events engineered to resist herbicides such as 2,4-D and glyphosinate ammonium in South Africa, such as Dow Chemical’s GM soybean DAS-68416-4, which which they applied to import in 2012. ACB has highlighted various regulatory failures including paucity of data received, fatal flaws in Dow’s food safety studies, and risks posed by these chemicals to humans and animals. In 2019, three GM maize varieties developed by Corteva, genetically engineered to tolerate 2,4-D, were approved for commercial cultivation in SA. The main reason for this having occurred was the fact that the Cartagena Protocol on Biosafety and South Africa’s GMO Act 15 of 2007 restrict risk assessments to the GMO itself, to the exclusion of associated chemicals. Yet, extensive commercial cultivation of these GM maize crops will increase the use of the toxic chemical, 2,4-D. ACB puts forward arguments for why 2,4-D is an HHP and should be banned in South Africa, following the South African government announcement of its intention in April 2022, to phase out HHPs by June 2024, which is however directed only at the active ingredients and formulations that meet the criteria of carcinogenicity, mutagenicity, and reproductive toxicity categories 1A or 1B of the Global Harmonised System (GHS) of Classification and Labelling of Chemicals. ACB presents arguments as to why this classification should not be restricted to categories 1A or 1B of the GHS and be expanded to include other hazard classes, based on current scientific evidence of adverse impacts on human and animal health, the precautionary principle embedded in national environmental law, international obligations, and best practice. | 2,4-D | Large body of evidence indicating major health effects, from cancer to immunosuppression, reproductive damage to neurotoxicity. Evidence-based studies also raise concerns about 2,4-D’s presence/detection in the environment, pointing out its potentially lethal effects on non-target organisms. | NA | South Africa | Research | Agriculture (crop protection) | Impacts of 2,4-D include: cancer, oxidative stress, immunosuppression, impact on the auditory function in infants, liver and kidney issues, reproductive health effects, and neurological health impacts. | NA | Several | NA | Environmental contamination, particularly in wetlands, has long since also been demonstrated. Having often been detected in surface and ground water, 2,4-D poses a huge environmental problem and health hazard due to its low absorption coefficients and high solubility in water and is known to degrade poorly in the environment. This eventually threatens the life of exposed vegetation and animals. Also, runoff that end up in local rivers and water systems may threaten the health of aquatic life. Studies have shown that 2,4-D can reduce growth rates, induce reproductive problems, and produce changes in appearance or behaviour, and could cause death of non-target species, including plants, animals and microorganisms. 2,4-D is associated with significant adverse impacts on biodiversity and the environment. 2,4-D and other herbicides, such as glyphosate, used in conjunction with GM crop plants, are contributing to the development of superweeds that threaten biodiversity, agriculture and the biotech industry itself. Weed resistance to herbicides, especially multiple-herbicide resistance, poses a serious threat to global food production. | Air, water & soil | The ACB warned that pesticide residues will contaminate South Africa’s food systems and exacerbate our current public health crises since no comprehensive, independent and transparent environmental, socio-economic and food safety assessment studies of the combined effects of these agrotoxins and their adjuvants, on human and animal health, exist in the public domain. | SA as a Party to the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) should be cognisant of Target 7 of the Kunming-Montreal Global Biodiversity Framework (GBF) of 2022, which represents a commitment by the international community to reduce pollution, including reducing the use of pesticides and highly hazardous chemicals, by 2030. SA is also a signatory to International Chemicals Management (SAICM) – a global policy framework to foster the sound management of chemicals – which is hosted by the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) and adopted in 2006. SA must be seen to be implementing its international obligations. Overall, the legal framework regulating pesticide usage in SA is weak and provides woefully insufficient health and safety provisions, and environmental protection, especially in regard to occupational health, the health of adjacent rural communities, long-term environmental impacts, monitoring, compliance, and compensation. There is inconsistency in the SA regulations regarding pest control operators, which apply to aerial spraying but not to what happens on the ground via mist blowers and centrifuges, etc., where most spraying takes place and most of the drift is caused. Limited monitoring has failed to keep up with the pace of scientific advances that better understand chemical hazards and risks. SA’s regulation of pesticides and agricultural chemicals simply does not comply with its Constitution and flouts several fundamental rights. | The submission was sent to the Registrar of the GMO Act. Despite follow-ups, ACB only received an acknowledgment response in July 2023 and continued to make written follow-ups, and then in December submitted a further submission and wrote a letter to Agricultural Minister John Steenhuisen. | To date there has been no substantive response after the queries for further information. | Report/working paper/book – policy | |
| ACB | Regulator’s blind eye of Corteva’s toxic spread: 2,4-D GM maize and agrarian extractivism in South Africa | 2021 | ACB website | Alert | ACB argues that despite 2,4-D being extremely toxic for the environment and human health, the South African regulators have failed to stop it from prevailing our agricultural and food system, in a global context where many countries are re-evaluating the toxicity of herbicides, and setting more stringent limits of what they will permit. In 2019, for commercial cultivation SA approved three Corteva GM maize varieties that can withstand 2,4-D, with two being able to withstand glyphosate and another toxic poison – glufosinate ammonium. ACB argued that this will spur on an ever more vicious cycle of resistance, requiring even strong poisons to counter attack. As with all other applications for GM events, an environmental impact assessment was not triggered. In light of the incontrovertible evidence base of detrimental harm, the ACB denounced this approval as a demonstration of corporate malpractice and the power the agrochemical industry wields over the government. | 2,4-D, glufosinate ammonium and glyphosate | 2,4-D is a synthetic hormone that mimics a type of plant hormone, called auxins. Hormone mimics are widely associated with adverse health effects, including developmental and reproductive toxicity, as a result of hormone disruption. 2,4-D has been shown to exert a wide range of toxic effects, including carcinogenicity, endocrine disruption, reproductive toxicity and neurotoxicity, which have led to various restrictions on its use by governments. 2,4-D has also been linked to increases in birth abnormalities in high use areas and it is thought to interfere with male reproduction, with effects including disrupted testosterone levels and spermatogenesis; reduce mortality of human sperm; and increased sperm abnormalities in farm workers. Exposure of 2,4-D to farm workers has resulted in higher rates of non-Hodgkin lymphoma, a cancer of the lymph node, as evidenced by numerous studies across various countries. | NA | South Africa | Research | NA | 2,4-D has been shown to exert a wide range of toxic effects, including carcinogenicity, endocrine disruption, reproductive toxicity and neurotoxicity, which have led to various restrictions on its use by governments. 2,4-D has also been linked to increases in birth abnormalities in high use areas and it is thought to interfere with male reproduction, with effects including disrupted testosterone levels and spermatogenesis; reduce mortality of human sperm; and increased sperm abnormalities in farm workers. Exposure of 2,4-D to farm workers has resulted in higher rates of non-Hodgkin lymphoma, a cancer of the lymph node, as evidenced by numerous studies across various countries. | NA | Several | NA | 2,4-D has often been detected in surface and ground water, posing huge an environmental problem and health hazard due to its low absorption coefficients and high solubility in water and is known to degrade poorly in the environment. This eventually threatens the life of exposed vegetation and animals. Also, runoffs that end up in local river and water systems may threaten the health of aquatic life. Studies have also shown that 2,4-D can reduce growth rates, induce reproductive problems, and produce changes in appearance or behaviour, and could cause death of non-target species, including plants, animals and microorganisms. 2,4-D is highly volatile, turning into a gaseous vapour, and thus known for its ability to cause pesticide drift. Off-target movement of 2,4-D during application, which can be as high as 1/10 and 1/100 of the applied rate, is very serious and costly, since it can cause extensive injury to susceptible crops and environments. It can also affect non-target plants and arthropod communities at the sites of simulated drift. | Air, water & soil | The ACB continues to demand a ban and the phasing out of all toxic herbicides, as a prerequisite to emerge from this malignant spiral and strive towards shaping a sustainable and agro-ecologically diverse farming and food system. We reject the poisoning of our land, people and nature posed by the inequitable, extractive agricultural and agrochemical industry. | This briefing was delivered to the Registrar of the GMO Act. | This briefing was delivered to the Registrar of the GMO Act. This follows on from many years where the ACB has monitored, tracked and opposed a number of applications and permits relating to 2,4-D (maize and soya) for commodity clearance and trial releases, through petitions to the government; participation in parliamentary hearings; letters to the Minister of Environment; appeals to the UN High Commission for Human Rights and the Secretary General of the Convention of Biological Diversity and several strong objections rejecting the approval of 2,4-D maize and soya. Yet the government has failed to consider the numerous concerns raised. The ACB has tirelessly sought information on the GM 2,4-D maize cultivation from various DARLLD officials and, to date, only the Chief Director has provided us with some meaningful insights. Attempts to solicit information directly from Corteva were refused, on the grounds that the information sought is confidential and proprietary. | Peer reviewed – policy | |
| Andrade-Rivas F & Rother H-A | Chemical exposure reduction: Factors impacting on South African herbicide sprayers' personal protective equipment compliance and high risk work practices | 2015 | Environmental Research, Vol. 142, October 2015, 34-45 | Environmental Health Division & Centre for Environmental and Occupational Health Research, School of Public Health and Family Medicine, University of Cape Town; Universidad El Bosque, Research Vice-rectoray, Bogotá, Colombia | The high exposure risks of workers to herbicides in low- and middle-income countries is an important public health concern because of the potential resulting negative impacts on workers' health. This study investigated workers' personal protective equipment (PPE) compliance as a risk mitigation measure; particularly workers who apply herbicides for Working for Water (WfW) – a South African invasive alien vegetation control programme. The study aim was to understand workers' low PPE compliance by analysing their risk perceptions of herbicide use, working conditions and socio-cultural context. Research methods included ethnographic observations, informal interviews, visual media, questionnaires and a focus group. Study results indicated that low PPE compliance persists despite workers' awareness of herbicide exposure risks and as a result of the influence from workers' socio-cultural context (i.e. gender dynamics and social status), herbicide risk perceptions and working conditions (i.e. environmental and logistical). Interestingly, teams comprised of mostly women had the highest compliance rate. These findings highlighted that given the complexity of PPE compliance, especially in countries with several economic and social constraints, exposure reduction interventions should not rely solely on PPE use promotion. Instead, other control strategies requiring less worker input for effectiveness should be implemented, such as elimination and substitution of highly hazardous pesticides, and altering application methods. | Glyphosate 2,4-D Picloram Clopyralid Tebuthiuron Triclopyr Fluroxpyr Metsulfuron methyl Diquat dibromide | The study shows low PPE compliance persists despite workers' awareness of herbicide exposure risks and as a result of the influence from workers' socio-cultural context (i.e. gender dynamics and social status), herbicide risk perceptions and working conditions (i.e. environmental and logistical). The study shows that pesticide protection interventions should not relying solely on PPE use as an exposure reduction strategy, but considering it as only one part of an exposure control pro gramme. In LMIC with limited working options and vulnerable populations, the occupational exposure of workers to herbicides could offset the benefits of poverty relief programmes such as WfW. | February to September 2012 | Cape Town surrounds | Field work observations | Alien control | Exposure while removing invasive alien vegetation | Workplace study | Several | Direct exposure in the field | NA | NA | Exposure reduction interventions should not rely solely on PPE use promotion. Instead, other control strategies requiring less worker input for effectiveness should be implemented, such as elimination and substitution of highly hazardous pesticides, and altering application methods. | WfW management engaged with the findings and implemented some of the study recommendations, such as ensuring the use of long-sleeved tops and requiring the use of carbon filter masks, which are more comfortable, in their policy documents (although these have yet to be purchased). | Peer reviewed – human harm | ||
| Ansara-Ross T, Wepener V, Van den Brink P, & Ross M. | The use and validation of a probabilistic risk assessment model for estimating potential risks of deltamethrin to the Crocodile River, South Africa | 2008 | African Journal of Aquatic Science, October 2013. Water SA Vol. 34 No. 5 October 2008 | Centre for Aquatic Research, Department of Zoology, University of Johannesburg | External agricultural inputs, such as pesticides, may pose risks to aquatic ecosystems and affect aquatic populations, communities and ecosystems. To predict these risks, a tiered approach was followed, incorporating both the PRIMET and PERPEST models. The first-tier PRIMET model is designed to yield a relatively worst-case risk assessment requiring a minimum of input data, after which the effects of the risks can be refined using a higher tier PERPEST model. The risk assessment initially depends on data supplied from local landowners, pesticide characteristic, application scheme and physical scenario of the environment under question. Preliminary results are presented, together with ecotoxicological data on several frequently-used pesticides in a section of the Crocodile (west) Marico Water Management Area (WMA) in SA. This area is historically known to have a high pesticide usage, with deltamethrin, aldicarb, parathion, cypermethrin and dichlorvos being the main pesticides used. Deltamethrin was indicated as having the highest probability of risks to aquatic organisms occurring in the study area. Cypermethrin, parathion, dichlorvos, carbaryl, bromoxynil, linuron, methomyl and aldicarb were all indicated as having possible risks (ETR 1-100) to the aquatic environment. Pesticides posing no risk included fenamiphos, abamectin, pendimethalin, captan, endosulfan, alachlor, bentazone and cyromazine (ETR<1). The pesticides posing a possible risk to the aquatic ecosyste were evaluated further to determine their effects on 8 grouped endpoints using the PERPEST effect model. Deltamethrin and cypermethrin were again noted as posing the greatest risk and clear effects were eminent for aquatic insects and macro-crustaceans, followed by micro-crustaceans and rotifers. High percentages of clear effects on insects were also observed for carbaryl, parathion and dichlorvos. Linuron was indicated as having minimal clear effects on community metabolism, macrophytes and phytoplankton classes, while lesser clear effects of bromoxynil occurred on periphyton communities. Application of both the lower-tier PRIMET and higher-tier PERPEST models showed similar trends in that they both ranked the top 5 pesticides in the same order of risk. This approach offers a significant improvement over the presently-used simulation models or use of safety factors. It is therefore especially useful in developing countries such as SA, where pesticide environmental risk information is scarce. Although these models were effectively used in this study, it still has to be validated further under South African conditions | Deltamethrin Aldicarb Parathion Cypermethrin Dichlorvos | The models show that deltamethrin has the highest probability of risks to aquatic organisms occurring in the study area. Cypermethrin, parathion, dichlorvos, carbaryl, bromoxynil, linuron, methomyl and aldicarb were all indicated as having possible risks (ETR 1-100) to the aquatic environment. The second models also finds that Deltamethrin and cypermethrin pose the greatest risk and clear effects were eminent for aquatic insects and macro-crustaceans, followed by micro-crustaceans and rotifers. High percentages of clear effects on insects were also observed for carbaryl, parathion and dichlorvos. | 2005 | A section of the Crocodile (west) Marico Water Management Area (WMA) in SA | Asssement of risks linked to pesticides on aquatic ecosystems and populations, communities and ecosystems, using a tiered approach,incorporating both the PRIMET and PERPEST models. | Agriculture (crop protection) | NA | NA | NA | Leaching | Aquatic environment contamination | Fresh water | The use of these models are useful in developing countries such as SA, where pesticide environmental risk information is scarce. | Both models have ample scope for modelling ecological risk assessment in SA. | Peer reviewed – environmental harm | ||
| Ansara-Ross T, Wepener V, Van den Brink P, & Ross M. | Pesticides in South African fresh waters | 2012 | African Journal of Aquatic Science, 37:1, 1-16 | Centre for Aquatic Research, Department of Zoology, University of Johannesburg, Department of Aquatic Ecology and Water Quality Management, Wageningen University and Research Centre,The Netherlands and Alterra, Wageningen University and Research Centre, Wageningen, The Netherlands | Public concern has recently escalated over pesticide contamination of SA aquatic ecosystems. This review of published literature on the occurrence of pesticides within SA freshwater systems indicates that fewer than 50 studies of selected pesticides have been undertaken, with emphasis being on organochlorines. Extensive historical usage has led to the widespread persistence of selected organochlorines. Few studies have established linkages between pesticides, exposure pathways, environmental concentrations and the monitoring of toxicological effects on non-target organisms. Emphasis is now being placed on developing more field-relevant assessments, including microcosm and mesocosm studies, in situ bioassays and field studies. There are few data relating to the extent of exposure and effects of pesticides in SA aquatic environments, and thus further research is needed. Research should focus on multidisciplinary approaches that increase effective decisionmaking in data-poor circumstances. A pesticide risk assessment programme for aquatic ecosystems needs to be implemented in SA, which could feed into the National Toxicity Monitoring Programme. Preliminary risk assessment models should be used to detect pesticides posing possible or definite risks, whereafter more detailed chemical. toxicological and biological monitoring assessments should be performed if risks are predicted. | DDT Atrazine | Fewer than 50 studies of selected pesticides have been undertaken, with emphasis being on organochlorines. Extensive historical usage has led to the widespread persistence of selected organochlorines. | 1974 -2012 | Fresh water bodies in SA | Pesticide studies SA | Agriculture (crop protection) | NA | NA | NA | Runoff post agric. application | NA | Fresh water | A national pesticide monitoring programme for aquatic ecosystems needs to be implemented in SA, especially within agricultural areas. This could be done by intensifying and expanding current water monitoring programmes such as the NTMP. | In order to be cost-effective by reducing chemical-analysis, preliminary risk assessment models should be used within such programmes to screen for pesticides posing possible or definite risks, followed by more detailed monitoring assessments within target areas. Monitoring programmes should include chemical, toxicological and biological monitoring techniques if risks are predicted. The NTMP should be aligned with the National Water Resource Classification System where it would be fundamental in standardising future monitoring. The NTMP should aim towards the inclusion of sediment, biota, biomarkers and other chronic effect assessment | Peer reviewed – environmental harm | ||
| Balme K, Roberts J, Glasstone M. et al. | Pesticide poisonings at a tertiary children's hospital in SA: An increasing problem | 2010 | Clinical Toxicology | Poisons Information Centre, Department of Paediatrics and Child Health, Red Cross War Memorial Children’s Hospital and University of Cape Town (UCT); Centre for Occupational and Environmental Health Research, School of Public Health and Family Medicine, UCT | Exposure of children to pesticides and overt poisoning are an increasingly important problem in SA. Objective: This study describes the profile of acute paediatric pesticide exposures and poisonings presenting to Red Cross War Memorial Children’s Hospital (RCWMCH) in Cape Town SA from 2003 to 2008, identifies those poisonings due to illicit pesticides sold on the streets (‘‘street pesticides’’) and assesses the number of incidents in which the statutory requirement of notification to the local health authority is met. Methods. Cases were identified by review of the RCWMCH case and notification records and the local health authority notification records. Results. There were 306 patients with 311 incidents of acute pesticide exposure or poisoning. This represents 11% of all paediatric exposures and poisonings (N1⁄4 2868) seen over the 6-year period. The number of pesticide incidents increased annually. Two hundred seventy-eight (91%) children were under 6 years old and 164 (54%) were males. Two hundred seventeen (70%) patients came from six socio-economically diverse suburbs in the Cape Town Metropole, each of which ranges from informal settlements with extreme poverty to formal housing with lower to middle class populations. There was a summer predominance of acute pesticide exposures and poisonings. The commonest group of pesticides were 203 cholinergics (includes organophosphates and carbamates), 35 anticoagulants and 45 unknowns. One hundred incidents were classified as exposures as they were asymptomatic. Two hundred eleven symptomatic incidents, termed pesticide poisonings, required admission; 121 to High Care or Intensive Care Unit (ICU). The median length of stay in hospital was 3 days (range 0–52). There were 6 (2%) deaths. The large group of cholinergic exposures and poisonings (203) required 195 (96%) admissions; 120 (59%) to High Care or ICU. Of the 44 ‘‘street pesticide’’ exposures and poisonings, 33 were cholinergic poisonings and 21 required High Care or ICU. Eighty-seven (41%) of 211 poisonings requiring notification were recorded at the local health authority; all were instances of cholinergic poisoning. Conclusion. The increasing number and the morbidity and mortality of acute paediatric pesticide exposure and poisoning is of great concern. Furthermore, the magnitude of the problem is masked by inadequate notification with the relevant health authorities. | The study reports 306 patients with 311 incidents of acute pesticide exposure or poisoning. This represents 11% of all paediatric exposures and poisonings (N1⁄4 2868) seen over the 6-year period. The number of pesticide incidents increased annually. The commonest group of pesticides were 203 cholinergics (includes organophosphates and carbamates), 35 anticoagulants and 45 unknowns. | January 2003 to December 2008 | Red Cross War Memorial Children’s Hospital, Cape Town | Review of the RCWMCH case and notification records and the local health authority notification records | Domestic use (rodent & insect control) | Poisoning | Residential study | Pesticide Ingestion | NA | NA | NA | Although national figures underestimate the true incidence, this study indicates an increase in paediatric acute pesticide exposure and poisoning with certain identifiable points: specific peri-urban communities are at risk; cholinergic pesticides are causing significant morbidity; ‘‘street pesticides’’ are not uncommon; a good history is essential in starting the process of adequately defining the pesticide involved; and notification is inadequate. Dealing with these factors will improve quantification of acute pesticide poisonings and contribute to prevention strategies such as pest control, pesticide risk education and local policy. | Peer reviewed – human harm | ||||
| Balme K, Roberts J, Glasstone M, Curling L, & Mann M. | The changing trends of childhood poisoning at a tertiary children’s hospital in SA | 2012 | S Afr Med J 2012;102:142-146 | Poisons Information Centre, Department of Paediatric Medicine, Red Cross War Memorial Children’s Hospital and University of Cape Town | Context. Information on childhood poisoning in the developing world, including SA, is scarce, despite its contribution to morbidity and mortality. Objective. We describe the profile of children with exposures and poisonings presenting to Red Cross War Memorial Children’s Hospital (RCWMCH) in Cape Town, SA, from 2003 to 2008 and compare the trends of causative agents over the past two decades. Methods. Cases were identified by review of the RCWMCH case records Results. Of the total incidents (N=2 872), paraffin (kerosene) was the commonest agent (n=692, 24%) with 124 poisonings including two deaths. Drugs were the most common toxin group (n=988, 34%), including 139 single-drug poisonings with 5 deaths; 4 associated with traditional medicine use. Household cleaning product incidents (n=302, 10%) resulted in 29 single-product poisonings with no deaths. Pesticide incidents (n=311, 10%) included 6 deaths; 203 (65%) incidents were due to organophosphates or carbamates. The suburban distribution of the main toxin groups varied. Comparing 1987 and 2008, the number of incidents decreased from 1 116 to 447; drug and paraffin incidents decreased respectively (from 673 to 150 and from 332 to 87), household cleaning products and cosmetics increased (21 to 69) and pesticide incidents increased (7 to 69). Conclusion. Despite a decrease in the overall number of incidents over two decades at RCWMCH, paraffin and drugs remain the principal agents responsible for paediatric exposures and poisonings, with increasing incidents due to household cleaning products and pesticides. Identification of these toxin groups coming from specific suburbs allows for targeted prevention initiatives. | Pesticide incidents (n=311, 11%) included 6 deaths, 20 (65%) of all pesticide incidents were due to organophosphates or carbamates. The study also flags lower case reporting attributed to government policy of outsourcing poizoning to local clinics. | This was a retrospective review of children RCWMCH with toxin exposure or poisoning between January 2003 and December 2008. | Poisons Information Centre, Department of Paediatric Medicine, Red Cross War Memorial Children’s Hospital and University of Cape Town | Hospital records | Domestic use (rodent & insect control) | Paraffin and drugs responsible for paediatric exposures and poisonings. | Residential study | Pesticide Ingestion | NA | NA | NA | This study highlights the key areas of concern regarding the trends of causative agents and associated morbidity and mortality in children presenting to RCWMCH. Such data require acknowledgement by the SA National Department of Health. | Peer reviewed – human harm | ||||
| Balme K, McCulloch M, & Stephen C. | Prolonged paralysis in a child with organophosphate pesticide poisoning | 2018 | S Afr Med J 2018;108(6):468-470. | Poisons Information Centre, Red Cross War Memorial Children’s Hospital, Paediatric Intensive Care Unit, Red Cross War Memorial Children’s Hospital and Faculty of Health Sciences, University of Cape Town, SA | A 17-month-old boy presented to a local community health centre in Cape Town, SA, with severe organophosphate pesticide poisoning (OPP), necessitating the use of intravenous atropine to control cholinergic symptoms, as well as emergency intubation for ongoing respiratory distress. He required prolonged ventilatory support in the intensive care unit at his referral hospital and had subsequent delayed neurological recovery, spending 8 days in hospital. We present this case to emphasise the importance of adequate atropinisation in the management of severe OPP and to highlight the dangers of inappropriate use of suxamethonium for intubation in patients with OPP. | Medical case study; severe poisoning | Unspecified | Community health centre in Cape Town, SA. | Hospital records | Domestic use (rodent & insect control) | Organophosphates bind irreversibly to acetylcholinesterase and plasma cholinesterase, rendering them unable to cleave acetylcholine at pre- and postsynaptic junctions and at skeletal muscle and central nervous system receptors. This results in a clinical syndrome of cholinergic overstimulation. During the acute cholinergic crisis, respiratory embarrassment is due to bronchorrhoea, bronchospasm, respiratory muscle weakness and central nervous system depression with loss of central respiratory drive.[6,7] Any ongoing respiratory difficulty and neurological weakness may be due to delayed neurotoxic effects, such as intermediate syndrome,[6,8] or complications secondary to the acute crisis, e.g. hypoxic brain injury or aspiration. | Residential study | Pesticide Ingestion | NA | NA | NA | In patients with severe OPP, rapid atropinisation with initial doubling of bolus doses, followed by an atropine infusion, improves outcomes. Regular assessment of treatment response is required. • Acute respiratory failure in OPP is due to bronchorrhoea, bronchospasm, respiratory muscle weakness and central nervous system depression. • Suxamethonium and mivacurium for intubation should not be used in patients with OPP, and alternative muscle relaxants should be considered. Where suxamethonium has been used for airway management, prolonged paralysis must be anticipated. | Peer reviewed – human harm | ||||
| Balme K, & Stephens C. | Streamlining referral decisions for childhood poisoning: a cross-sectional study from a tertiary children’s hospital in Cape Town, SA | 2022 | African Journal of Emergency Medicine, Vol. 12, Issue 4, December 2022: 432-437 | Poisons Information Centre, Red Cross War Memorial Children’s Hospital, Cape Town, SA. | Introduction: The study objectives were to report on current paediatric poisoning figures from SA, and to better understand this patient population to contribute suggestions for streamlining local triage and referral criteria. Methods: A retrospective review of children presenting to Red Cross War Memorial Children’s Hospital (RCWMCH) with poisoning between January 2009 and December 2019 was performed. Data were extracted from the Poisons Information Centre’s Clinical Poisonings Database. Results: There were 3699 incidents, involving 3662 patients; 3011 (81%) patients were under 5 years (median 29 months, IQR 19 to 49 months). There was a slight decline in numbers over the 11-year period. Most patients were referred (n = 2542, 69%), which included a greater proportion that were symptomatic (p < 0.001). There were 8 deaths (case fatality rate 0.2%). Medications were the most common single toxin group (n = 1270, 38%), followed by handyman and industrial (HI) products (n = 889, 27%), household products (n = 451, 14%), and pesticides (n = 445, 13%). There was a significant relationship between toxin type and referral patterns (p < 0.001) as well as clinical severity (p< 0.001): pesticides and HI products (paraffin, n = 486/568, 86%) had a greater proportion of referrals, and pesticides more moderate to fatal poisonings (n = 132/445, 30%), all due to cholinergic (organophosphates andcarbamates) and formamidine pesticides. The medication subgroups anticonvulSouth Africants (n = 21/78, 27%), anti-infectives (n = 4/34, 12%), multi- vitamin/mineral (MVM) supplements (n = 17/84, 20%), neuropsychiatric medications (n = 50/350, 14%) and substances of abuse (n = 13/47, 28%) had larger proportions of moderate to severe poisonings (p < 0.001), asdid the small group of biological toxins (n = 17/55, 31%; p < 0.001). Conclusion: Certain medication, pesticide, and biological toxin subgroups, should be flagged for early referral. The goal is to improve patient outcomes as well as optimize the use of limited resources. | Organophosphates and carbamates, and anticoagulant pesticides | A retrospective review of children presenting to RCWMCH with toxin exposure or poisoning was performed. Under the category Pesticides: rodenticides, insecticides, fungicides, repellents, herbi- cides | between January 2009 and December 2019 | Red Cross childrens hospital | Hospital records | Domestic use (rodent & insect control) | Childhood poisoning | Residential study | Pesticide Ingestion | NA | NA | NA | Poisoning, a preventable condition, is costly in terms of human and financial impacts. These data serve to give a better understanding of the burden of disease of paediatric poisoning | Peer reviewed – human harm | |||
| Batterman, SA, Chernyak, SM, Gounden, Y, Matooane, M & Naidoo,RN. | Organochlorine pesticides in ambient air in Durban, SA | 2008 | Science of The Total Environment, Vol. 397, Issues 1–3, 2008: 119-130, | Environmental Health Sciences, University of Michigan School of Public Health, Ann Arbor, USA and Centre for Occupational and Environmental Health, University of KwaZulu-Natal, SA. | Despite the existence of numerous sources and continuing use, information regarding emissions and airborne concentrations of organochlorine pesticides in Africa is extremely limited. This paper presents results of a monitoring program conducted in Durban, SA that was designed to characterize levels, trends and possible sources of pesticides in both industrial and residential areas. Three monitoring sites were established, two in an industrialized area in the southern part of the city, and the third in a northern residential area. Particulate and vapor samples were sampled over the 2004–5 period and analyzed by GC/MS to estimate long-term levels of a wide range of pesticides. Based on a year of sampling, the sites had comparable levels of many pesticides with exceptions of α-chlordane and lindane. Levels of p,p'-DDT (42 ± 27 pg m− 3) and its derivatives were relatively high and showed an unusual mixture with high levels of p,p'-DDD (12 ± 11 pg m− 3). Other pesticides detected and quantified included aldrin, chlordanes, hexachlorobenzene and dieldrin. Potential source areas, identified using concentration patterns, local and regional gradients, compositional information and trajectory analyses, suggest that chlordane and lindane arise from both local sources as well as regional/global sources; DDT from regional sources elsewhere in SA, Africa and India; and most of the other long-lived pesticides detected, including γ-nonachlor, hexachlorobenzene and toxaphene, from global sources. This monitoring results, which represent the most detailed study to date of pesticides in air in Africa, serve several purposes, including documenting the presence and use of long-banned pesticides like aldrin, aiding the understanding of the fate of persistent compounds, identifying pollutants that may contribute to health problems, and informing decision-making aimed at reducing exposures and risks. | DDT Lindane Pentachlorobenzene Octachlorostyrene Pentachloroanisole Chlordane Hexachlorobenzene Dieldrin Aldrin γ-Nonachlor Hexachlorobenzene Toxaphene | The study examines a number of older (legacy) persistent pesticides and related organochlorinated persistent organic pollutants (POPs). Levels of p,p'-DDT (42 ± 27 pg m− 3) and its derivatives were relatively high and showed an unusual mixture with high levels of p,p'-DDD (12 ± 11 pg m− 3). Other pesticides detected and quantified included aldrin, chlordanes, hexachlorobenzene and dieldrin. Potential source areas, identified using concentration patterns, local and regional gradients, compositional information and trajectory analyses, suggest that chlordane and lindane arise from both local sources as well as regional/global sources; DDT from regional sources elsewhere in SA, Africa and India; and most of the other long-lived pesticides detected, including γ-nonachlor, hexachlorobenzene and toxaphene, from global sources. | Durban (eThekwini Municipality) | Ambient air quality monitoring program | NA | NA | Residential study | Inhalation | NA | NA | Air | This paper presents monitoring results for a wide range of persistent organochlorine compounds using three high volume air samplers in Durban, SA, and it represents the most detailed study to date of pesticides in air in Africa and some of first measurements in southern Africa for several compounds, e.g., dacthal and toxaphene. This monitoring results, which represent the most detailed study to date of pesticides in air in Africa, serve several purposes, including documenting the presence and use of long-banned pesticides like aldrin, aiding the understanding of the fate of persistent compounds, identifying pollutants that may contribute to health problems, and informing decision-making aimed at reducing exposures and risks. | Peer reviewed – human harm | ||||
| Bollmohr S, van den Brink P, Wade P, Day J, & Schulz R. | Spatial and temporal variability in particle-bound pesticide exposure and their effects on benthic community structure in a temporarily open estuary | 2008 | Estuarine, Coastal and Shelf Science 82 (2009) 50-60 | Freshwater Research Unit, University of Cape Town, SA; Institute for Environmental Sciences, University Koblenz-Landau, Germany; Alterra, Centre for Water and Climate, Wageningen University and Research Centre, The Netherlands; Department of Aquatic Ecology and Water Quality Management, Wageningen University and Research Centre, Wageningen, The Netherlands Environmental Geoscience Unit, Council for Geoscience. | Spatial and temporal variations in particle-bound pesticide contamination, natural environmental variables, and benthic abundance were measured during the dry summer season within a temporarily open estuary (Lourens River). This study focused on the effect of particle-associated pesticides on the dynamics of the benthic community (including epi-benthic, hyper-benthic, and demersal organisms) by comparing two runoff events, differing in their change in pesticide concentration and environmental variables. The two chosen sites were situated within the upper and middle reaches of the estuary and differ significantly in salinity (p 1⁄4 0.001), flow (p 1⁄4 0.5), temperature (p < 0.001) and particulate organic carbon in the sediment (p < 0.001). Generally higher particle-bound pesticides were found in the upper reaches. The first runoff event was characterised by an increase in pesticides (chlorpyrifos, endosulfan and cypermethrin) and hardly any change in natural environmental variables, whereas the second runoff event was characterised by no increase in pesticide but a significant change in natural environmental variables like salinity, temperature and flow. The most evident spatial difference in community structure was shown by the use of Principal Response Curve after the first runoff event, whereas no response was shown after the second runoff event. The variables which explained most of the spatial differences are Total Organic Carbon, salinity, chlorpyrifos and endosulfan concentrations. The species contributing most to the spatial differences are the estuarine harpacticoid Mesochra and Canthocamptus (lower abundance at the upper reaches) and the freshwater species Dunhevedia and Thermocyclops (higher abundance within upper reaches). Within the spatial variability (between upper and middle reaches) the authors were able to detect a link between endosulfan, chlorpyrifos exposure, TOC and salinity and community change by comparing the two runoff events. | Endosulfan Chlorpyrifos Cypermethrin | The study detected a link between endosulfan, chlorpyrifos exposure, TOC and salinity and community change by comparing the two runoff events. | 28 November 2002–28 March 2003 | Lourens River, Western Cape | Water samples analysed at the Forensic Chemistry Laboratory, Department of National Health, Cape Town. | Agriculture (crop protection) | NA | NA | NA | Spray drift and runoff | Long term exposure of pesticides with toxicologically relevant concentrations it remains difficult to determine any acute effect towards the dynamic of already adapted meiobenthos community. | Air & water | Spacial analysis proved more significant in determining environmental change. | Peer reviewed – environmental harm | |||
| Bornman, R, De Jager, T, & Worku, Z. | Indoor Residual Spraying (IRS) of DDT Is Associated With Urogenital Birth Defects in Neonates | 2007 | Epidemiology. 18:p S78, September 2007 | Department of Urology, and University of Pretoria, SA. | Objective: To determine the risk of urogenital birth defects in newborn babies to mothers living in DDT-sprayed houses, Limpopo Province, SA. The study was performed at Tshilidzini Hospital, Thohoyandou, Limpopo Province, where DDT has been used since 1945 for malaria vector control. From May 2004 to April 2006, 2 trained professional nurses examined 7145 newborn babies for external urogenital birth defects. Anomalies were coded as definite only if a pediatrician or the Genetics Nurse confirmed the diagnosis. The cross-sectional study included 2640 children from DDT-sprayed villages and 4299 children from similar ethnic and socioeconomic backgrounds living in nonsprayed villages (reference group). The reference group was newborns from nonsprayed villages. Results: Of the 7145 newborns examined, 5.66% had external urogenital anomalies, whereas defects occurred in 55.6/1000 livebirths. The presence of urogenital birth defects was influenced by whether the mother was living in a DDT-sprayed village (P = 0.028) and the “iving in a DDT-sprayed village (P = 0.028) and the presence of polythelia (P = 0.000) (Pearson χ2 tests). Estimated risk ratios showed that children living in sprayed villages were 1.75 times more at risk in comparison to those from nonsprayed villages. Likewise, children with extra nipples were 3.38 times more at risk to have urogenital birth defects in comparison with children with no extra nipples. Stratum-specific odds ratios for occupation showed that being unemployed or a scholar/student increased the risk. Conclusions: Maternal exposure by living in a DDT-sprayed village significantly increased the risk of having offspring with 1 or more urogenital birth defects. Moreover, spending more time at home seemed to further increase the risk. Integrating adequate IRS measures from the malaria control program and increased awareness on the need for self-protection by the residents are crucial components that need to be addressed. Monitoring the impact of IRS on human and environmental health is imperative if DDT is used or reintroduced. | DDT | Maternal exposure by living in a DDT-sprayed village significantly increased the risk of having offspring with 1 or more urogenital birth defects. | May 2004 to April 200 | Tshilidzini Hospital, Thohoyandou, Limpopo Province | 2 trained professional nurses examined 7145 newborn babies for external urogenital birth defects. | Malaria control | External urogenital anomalies on neworns | Residential study | Several | NA | NA | Air & water | Monitoring the impact of IRS on human and environmental health is imperative if DDT is used or reintroduced. | Peer reviewed – human harm | |||
| Chetty-Mhlanga S, Basera W, Fuhrimann S, Probst-Hensch N, Delport S, Mugari M, Van Wyk J, Röösli M, Dalvie M (prospective study) | A prospective cohort study of school-going children investigating reproductive and neurobehavioral health effects due to environmental pesticide exposure in the Western Cape, SA. | 2018 | Prospective study in BMC Public Health | Centre for Environment and Occupational Health Research, School of Public Health and Family Medicine, Faculty of Health Sciences, University of Cape Town | Background: Research on reproductive health effects on children from low-level, long-term exposure to pesticides currently used in the agricultural industry is limited and those on neurobehavioral effects have produced conflicting evidence. We aim at investigating the association between pesticide exposure on the reproductive health and neurobehavior of children in SA, by including potential relevant co-exposures from the use of electronic media and maternal alcohol consumption. Methods: The design entails a prospective cohort study with a follow-up duration of 2 years starting in 2017, including 1000 school going children between the ages of 9 to 16 years old. Children are enrolled with equal distribution in sex and residence on farms and non-farms in three different agricultural areas (mainly apple, table grapes and wheat farming systems) in the Western Cape, SA. The neurobehavior primary health outcome of cognitive functioning was measured through the iPad-based Cambridge Neuropsychological Test Automated Battery (CANTAB) including domains for attention, memory, and processing speed. The reproductive health outcomes include testicular size in boys and breast size in girls assessed in a physical examination, and blood samples to detect hormone levels and anthropometric measurements. Information on pesticide exposure, co-exposures and relevant confounders are obtained through structured questionnaire interviews with the children and their guardians. Environmental occurrence of pesticides will be determined while using a structured interview with farm owners and review of spraying records and collection of passive water and air samples in all three areas. Pesticide metabolites will be analysed in urine and hair samples collected from the study subjects every 4 months starting at baseline. Discussion: The inclusion of three different agricultural areas will yield a wide range of pesticide exposure situations. The prospective longitudinal design is a further strength of this study to evaluate the reproductive and neurobehavioural effects of different pesticides on children. This research will inform relevant policies and regulatory bodies to improve the health, safety and learning environments for children and families in agricultural settings. See also the result of this study | General | The design entails a prospective cohort study including 1000 school going children between the ages of 9 to 16 years old. The neurobehavior primary health outcome of cognitive functioning was measured through the iPad-based Cambridge Neuropsychological Test Automated Battery (CANTAB) including domains for attention, memory, and processing speed. The reproductive health outcomes include testicular size in boys and breast size in girls assessed in a physical examination, and blood samples to detect hormone levels and anthropometric measurements. Information on pesticide exposure, co-exposures and relevant confounders are obtained through structured questionnaire interviews with the children and their guardians. Environmental occurrence of pesticides will be determined while using a structured interview with farm owners and review of spraying records and collection of passive water and air samples in all three areas. Pesticide metabolites will be analysed in urine and hair samples collected from the study subjects every 4 months starting at baseline. | 2 years starting in 2017 | Children residing on farms and non-farms in three different agricultural areas (mainly apple, table grapes and wheat farming systems) in the Western Cape, SA. | We will assess spatial and seasonal variations of pesticide levels in the atmosphere (over six two-month sampling rounds) and in the aquatic environment (12 one-month sampling rounds) from July 2017 to June 2018. | Agriculture (crop protection) | Reproductive and neurobehavioral health effects | Residential study | Several | Spray drift and fomites | NA | This research will inform relevant policies and regulatory bodies to improve the health, safety and learning environments for children and families in agricultural settings. | Report/working paper/book – human harm | ||||
| Chetty-Mhlanga, C., Wisdom, B., Dalvie, M.A, Probst-Hensch, N. Rööslit, M., Furhiman, S. (prospective study) | OP V – 6 A study of school-going children on neurobehavior and currently used agricultural pesticide exposure in the rural western cape, SA | 2018 | Conference proceedings from ISEE Young 2018, Early Career Researchers Conference on Environmental Epidemiology – Together for a Healthy Environment, 19–20 March 2018, Freising, German. Published in Occupational and Environmental Medicine. March 2018. 75(Suppl 1):A11.2-A12 | University of Cape Town and Swiss Tropical and Public Health Institute | Background: Research on reproductive health effects on children from low-level, long-term exposure to pesticides currently used in the agricultural industry is limited and those on neurobehavioral effects have produced conflicting evidence. We aim at investigating the association between pesticide exposure on the reproductive health and neurobehavior of children in SA, by including potential relevant co-exposures from the use of electronic media and maternal alcohol consumption. Methods: The design entails a prospective cohort study with a follow-up duration of 2 years starting in 2017, including 1000 school going children between the ages of 9 to 16 years old. Children are enrolled with equal distribution in sex and residence on farms and non-farms in three different agricultural areas (mainly apple, table grapes and wheat farming systems) in the Western Cape, SA. The neurobehavior primary health outcome of cognitive functioning was measured through the iPad-based CAmbridge Neuropsychological Test Automated Battery (CANTAB) including domains for attention, memory, and processing speed. The reproductive health outcomes include testicular size in boys and breast size in girls assessed in a physical examination, and blood samples to detect hormone levels and anthropometric measurements. Information on pesticide exposure, co-exposures and relevant confounders are obtained through structured questionnaire interviews with the children and their guardians. Environmental occurrence of pesticides will be determined while using a structured interview with farm owners and review of spraying records and collection of passive water and air samples in all three areas. Pesticide metabolites will be analysed in urine and hair samples collected from the study subjects every 4 months starting at baseline. Discussion: The inclusion of three different agricultural areas will yield a wide range of pesticide exposure situations. The prospective longitudinal design is a further strength of this study to evaluate the reproductive and neurobehavioural effects of different pesticides on children. This research will inform relevant policies and regulatory bodies to improve the health, safety and learning environments for children and families in agricultural settings. See result of this study: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envint.2020.106237 | General | Prospective study | Between 2017 and 2019 | 3 agricultural farming areas in the Western Cape region | The 3-year cohort study entails a baseline (2017), 4-monthly exposure assessments covering all seasons in the second year and a final follow-up (2019) examination of 1.000 children aged 9–16 years old. The neurobehavior primary health outcome of cognitive functioning was measured through the iPad-based CAmbridge Neuropsychological Test Automated Battery (CANTAB) including domains for attention, memory, and processing speed. Information on pesticide exposure, co-exposures and relevant confounders are obtained through structured questionnaire interviews with the children and their guardians. Environmental occurrence of pesticides will be determined while using a structured interview with farm owners and review of spraying records and collection of passive water and air samples in all three areas. Pesticide metabolites will be analysed in urine and hair samples collected from the study subjects every 4 months starting at baseline. | Agriculture (crop protection) | Reproductive and neurobehavioral health effects | Residential study | Several | Spray drift and fomites | NA | NA | Report/working paper/book – human harm | ||||
| Chetty-Mhlanga S, Fuhrimann S, Basera W, Eeftens M, Ro ̈osli ̈M and Dalvie M. | Association of activities related to pesticide exposure on headache severity and neurodevelopment of school-children in the rural agricultural farmlands of the Western Cape of SA | 2021 | Centre for Environment and Occupational Health Research, School of Public Health and Family Medicine, University of Cape Town, SA | Swiss Tropical and Public Health Institute (STPH). This chair was formed in 2015 with funding sources from SA National Research Foundation (NRF) SARChI (grant number 94883), Swiss State Secretariat for Education, Research and Innovation, University of Basel and the STPH. Additionalfunding was received from the Department of Science and Technology (DST/CON 0149/2017) in SA and NRF Self Initiated Programme (grant number: 113999). Samuel Fuhrimann’s effort was alsosupported by a fellowship of the Swiss National Science Foundation. | Objective: Children and adolescents living in agricultural areas are likely to be exposed to mixtures of pesticides during their daily activities, which may impair their neurodevelopment. We investigated various such activities in relation to headache severity and neurodevelopment of school-children living in rural agricultural areas in the Western Cape of SA. Method: We used baseline date from 1001 school-children of the Child Health Agricultural Pesticide Cohort Study in SA (CapSA) aged 9–16 from seven schools and three agriculture areas in the Western Cape. Questionnaires were administrated to assess activities related to pesticide exposure and health symptoms addressing four types of activities: 1) child farm activities related to pesticide handling, 2) eating crops directly from the field, 3) contact with surface water around the field, and 4) seen and smelt pesticide spraying activities. Neurocognitive performance across three domains of attention, memory and processing speed were assessed by means of an iPad-based cognitive assessment tool, Cambridge Automated NeuroPsychological Battery (CANTAB). Headache severity was enquired using a standard Headache Impact Test (HIT-6) tool. Cross-sectional regression analysis was performed. Results: About 50% of the cohort report to have ever been engaged in activities related to pesticide exposure including farm activities, eating crops directly from the field and leisure activities. Headache severity score was consistently increased in relation to pesticide-related farm activities (score increase of 1.99; 95% CI: 0.86, 3.12), eating crops (1.52; 0.41, 2.67) and leisure activities of playing, swimming or bathing in nearby water (1.25; 0.18, 2.33). For neurocognitive outcomes, an overall negative trend with pesticide exposure-related activities was observed. Among others, involvement in pesticide-related farm activities was associated with a lower multi-tasking accuracy score (− 2.74; − 5.19, − 0.29), while lower strategy in spatial working memory (− 0.29;− 0.56; − 0.03) and lower paired associated learning (− 0.88; − 1.60, − 0.17) was observed for those who pick crops off the field compared to those who do not pick crops off the field. Eating fruits directly from the vineyard or orchard was associated with a lower motor screening speed (− 0.06; − 0.11, − 0.01) and lower rapid visual processing accuracy score (− 0.02; − 0.03, 0.00). Conclusions: Children who indicate activities related to pesticide exposure may be at higher risk for developing headaches and lower cognitive performance in the domains of attention, memory and processing speed. How- ever, self-reported data and cross-sectional design are a limitation. Future research in CapSA will consider pesticide exposure estimations via urinary biomarkers and longitudinal assessment of cognitive functions. | Atrazine Diazinon Chlorpyrifos Malathion Carbaryl Imidacloprid | A total of 53 pesticides were above the limit of detection, some of them in high concentrations. The majority of OPs include the neurotoxic ingredients atrazine, diazinon, chlorpyrifos and malathion, two of which, carbaryl and imidacloprid, are banned in the EU. Findings indicate long term detrimental effects children pesticide exposure on farms. Children who indicate activities related to pesticide exposure may be at higher risk for developing headaches and lower cognitive performance in the domains of attention, memory and processing speed.This study presents the findings of two propsective studies listed in the database: A prospective cohort study of school-going children investigating reproductive and neurobehavioral health effects due to environmental pesticide exposure in the Western Cape, SA; and, OP V – 6 A study of school-going children on neurobehavior and currently used agricultural pesticide exposure in the rural western cape, SA. | Between 2017 and 2019 | The areas include the Hex River Valley (mainly table grapes), Grabouw (mainly stone fruits) and Piketberg (mainly cereals). | Children aged 9 to 16 years old were recruited from seven schools attending grades 2 to 9. To ensure a pesticide exposure contrast in terms of proximity to agriculture fields, children were purposely enrolled from farms and villages. Children were interviewed at baseline in 2017 on the school premises using the smartphone-based application Open Data Kit (ODK) to enquire about their exposures and headache symptoms. Thereafter, participants were assessed on cognitive functioning, individually for a 40 -minute period via a neurocognitive software assessment tool on tablets. In addition an interview was conducted between 2018 and 2019 with the guardians. | Agriculture (crop protection) | Headaches and neurological harm | Residential study | Several | Spray drift and fomites | NA | NA | Based on our results and recent studies on pesticides and their burden of cardiovascular disease and respiratory health, a stricter control on management, storage, packaging and several processes after sales of pesticide is warranted. Given SA’s history and socio-economic divide to the farm laborers with short-term working contracts, future interventions should aim to reduce the health risks of these vulnerable populations including their children. | Our findings are novel since this is one of the few studies to address specific activities associated with pesticide exposure in this specific age group. As a next step, longitudinal analysis with biomarkers are needed to validate these pesticide exposure proxies. Given that these participants are not in occupation, a recommendation is to implement an educational program on pesticide related activities in schools and to learn from current interventions and their effectiveness. Future research in CapSA will consider pesticide exposure estimations via urinary biomarkers and longitudinal assessment of cognitive functions. | Peer reviewed – human harm | ||
| Chow, R, Davies, EJ, Furhimann, CS, Stam, C, and Dalvie MA. | Evaluating the drivers of aquatic pesticide pollution in the Western Cape, SA | 2021 | Conference: International Conference on Emerging Contaminants (EMCON) | Wageningen University, Swiss Federal Institute of Aquatic Science, University of Cape Town, Swiss Tropical and Public Health Institute | Agriculture is an essential sector to SA’s economy, which has made it the leading user of pesticides in sub-Saharan Africa. Consequently, there is an urgent need to better understand how pesticides could be entering non-target environments, particularly water, where it could potentially affect aquatic ecosystems and human health. Our current research evaluates datasets from 3 sampling campaigns in the rivers of 3 agricultural catchments (i.e., Grabouw, Hex River Valley, and Piketberg) within the Western Cape, SA. The sampling campaigns were conducted over three years: 2017 (July to December); 2018 (January to June) and 2019 (April to July) using passive water samplers. Additionally, pesticide application records were collected over the same periods. By evaluating these datasets, we have gained a better understanding of why specific pesticides are being detected while others are not. We have compared the levels of aquatic pesticide pollution to Environmental Quality Standards (EQS) to gauge its severity. We found that 8 pesticides have exceeded EQS values in at least one of the sampling campaigns. Imidacloprid is of particular concern because it has consistently exceeded EQS values in all three years. Additionally, fungicides were found to have been applied in the highest quantities yet were detected the least. This may be partially due to their chemical properties (i.e., short half-life and high sorption). Our research showcases methods to sample and evaluate data from longitudinal water monitoring for pesticides along intensive agriculture systems in a middle-income country. | Acetamiprid Chlorpyrifos Imidacloprid Metolachlor Thicloprod Carbendazim Spiroxamine | The study compared the levels of aquatic pesticide pollution to Environmental Quality Standards (EQS) and found that 8 pesticides have exceeded EQS values in at least 1 of the sampling campaigns. Fungicides were found to have been applied in the highest quantities yet were detected the least. Acetamiprid, Chlorpyrifos, Imidacloprid, Metolachlor ESA, Thicloprod, Carbendazim, and Spiroxamine all exceeded EQS value. Imidacloprid exceeded EQS in every catchment, particularly in the Hex River, where it exceeded in every sample interva, reaching a maximum of 186-fold. During the drought, the total sprayed is the dominant driver on mass transport, whereas after the drought the domiant driver is hydrological activity. | 2017, 2018, and 2019 | Rivers of three agricultural catchments (i.e., Grabouw, Hex River Valley, and Piketberg) within the Western Cape, SA | Datasets from three sampling campaigns using passive water samplers | Agriculture (crop protection) | NA | NA | NA | Runoff post agric. application | Aquatic pesticide pollution | Fresh water | NA | This research showcases methods to sample and evaluate data from longitudinal water monitoring for pesticides along intensive agriculture systems in a middle-income country. Having continuous and thougrough sampling is critical in making inter-annual comparisons; e.g macozeb was heavily applied but lack of continuous sampling impeded the analysis of impact. | Peer reviewed – environmental harm | ||
| Chow, R,Curchod, L. Davies, EJ, Velludo AF, Oltramare, C,Dalvie MA, Stamm, C, Röösli. M, and Furhimann, S. | Seasonal drivers and risks of aquatic pesticide pollution in drought and post-drought conditions in three Mediterranean watersheds | 2023 | Science of the Total Environment, 858 (2023) 159784 | Department of Earth Sciences, Stellenbosch University, Stellenbosch, SA, Swiss Federal Institute of Aquatic Science and Technology, Swiss Tropical and Public Health Institute (Swiss TPH), 4123 Allschwil, Switzerland, University of Basel, 4002 Basel, Switzerland and Centre for Environmental and Occupational Health Research, School of Public Health and Family Medicine, University of Cape Town. | Western Cape in SA has a Mediterranean climate, which has in part led to an abundance of agriculturally productive land supporting the wheat, deciduous fruit, wine, and citrus industries. SA is the leading pesticide user in sub-Saharan Africa. There is limited data on the pesticide pollution of surface water over different seasons in low- and middle-income countries. We evaluated the seasonal drivers of aquatic pesticide pollution in three river catchments (Berg, Krom, and Hex Rivers) from July 2017 to June 2018 and April to July 2019, using 48 passive samplers. Our sampling followed the most severe drought (2015–2018) since recordings in 1960. Thus, our analyses focus on how drought and post-drought conditions may affect in-stream pesticide concentrations and loads. Samples were analyzed for 101 pesticide compounds using liquid chromatography – high-resolution mass spectrometry. Environmental Quality Standards (EQS) were used to assess the risks.We detected 60 pesticide compounds across the sampling periods. Our results indicate that all samples across all three catchments contained at least three pesticides and that the majority (83%) contained five or more pesticides. Approximately half the number of pesticides were detected after the drought in 2018. High concentration sums of pesticides (>1 μg/L) were detected over long time periods in the Hex River Valley (22 weeks) and in Piketberg (four weeks). Terbuthylazine, Imidacloprid, and Metsulfuron-methyl were detected in the highest concentrations, making up most of the detected mass, and were frequently above EQS. The occurrence of some pesticides in water generally correlated with their application and rainfall events. However, those ofimidacloprid and terbuthylazine did not, suggesting that non-rainfall-driven transport processes are important drivers. | Acetamiprid Chlorpyrifos Imidacloprid Metolachlor Thicloprod Carbendazim Spiroxamine | Two catchments in particular had very high concentrations (>1 μg/L) over long time periods (22 weeks in the Hex River Valley and 4 weeks in Piketberg). High concentrations are typically caused by only a single/few pesticide(s) per catchment (i.e., terbuthylazine in Grabouw, imidacloprid in Hex River Valley and terbuthylazine and metsulfuron-methyl in Piketberg). The total number of detected pesticides and total concentration in surface water is only partially explainable by their application data and rainfall patterns.While the occurrence of some pesticides coincides with their application, others detected at relatively high concentrations are not limited to their application periods. This suggests that non-rainfall-driven pesticide transport processes are important. | 2017 to June 2018 and April to July 2019. | Rivers of three agricultural catchments (i.e., Grabouw, Hex River Valley, and Piketberg) within the Western Cape, SA. | Datasets from three sampling campaigns using passive water samplers | Agriculture (crop protection) | NA | NA | NA | Runoff post agric. application | Aquatic pesticide pollution | Fresh water | Establishing EQS values based on the ecotoxicity of aquatic organisms in SA would provide more context-specific standards to evaluate the risk of pesticide pollution. | To adequately address the ecological relevance of aquatic pesticide pollution in the Western Cape, it would be important to continue sampling and testing surfacewaters for at least another full year so that a comparison can be made to non-drought conditions over a spray-season. Future research could also include understanding the ecological risks of pesticide mixtures in the environment (i.e., assess cumulative ecotoxicological risk of all 60 detected pesticide compounds) and estimating contained five or more pesticides. | Peer reviewed – environmental harm | ||
| Chow, R, Davies, E, Fuhrimann, S, and Stamm, C. | Drug analysis as a tracer of pesticide pollution from wastewater treatment plants in the Western Cape, SA, EGU24-18329 | 2024 | EGU General Assembly 2024, Vienna, Austria, 14–19 Apr 2024 | Soil Physics and Land Management Group, Wageningen University & Research, Netherlands; Department of Earth Sciences, Stellenbosch University, Stellenbosch, SA, Department of Earth Sciences, Stellenbosch University, SA, Swiss Tropical and Public Health Institute, and Swiss Federal Institute of Aquatic Science and Technology, Switzerland. | SA has one of the most productive and diverse agricultural economies in Africa. Consequentially, it is the leading pesticide user in sub-Saharan Africa. The Western Cape is a dominant agricultural region in SA, making it particularly vulnerable to pesticide pollution. After application, pesticides can be transported to rivers, potentially causing adverse ecological and human health effects. Thus, there is an urgent need to understand the sources and risk of aquatic pesticide pollution.To achieve this, we deployed passive samplers for two-week intervals every month from February 2022-March 2023 in three rivers within agricultural catchments (Piketberg, Grabouw, and the Hex River Valley) in the Western Cape. A control sample was deployed in Jonkershoek Nature Reserve. A pesticide monitoring campaign from 2017-2019 in the same agricultural catchments identified year-round detections despite few agricultural applications, making sources and drivers of pesticide pollution unclear. Thus, in addition to 44 pesticides, 20 drugs were analysed using LC-MS/MS as an indicator for wastewater treatment plant effluent. 22 pesticides and seven drugs were detected above the limit of quantification.While some pesticides showed elevated concentrations and detections during the main pesticide application period which indicates rainfall and application as a contamination driver, some pesticides without year-round agricultural applications (e.g., imidacloprid) had high detection frequencies and concentrations out of the main application season. However, such compounds typically had high Groundwater Ubiquity Scores. This suggests constant leaching of pesticides into groundwater connected to rivers as a possible contamination source.Piketberg had high cumulative drug concentrations which correlated strongly with cumulative pesticide concentrations, whereas Grabouw and Hex River Valley did not. This holds particularly true for carbendazim and terbuthylazine. This suggests that some pesticides in Piketberg are likely sourced from both wastewater treatment plants and agriculture, whereas the absence of drugs in Grabouw and Hex River Valley suggests that pesticides are more likely sourced from agriculture. Herbicide detections in Jonkershoek Nature Reserve (e.g., atrazine) indicate contamination possibly sourced from atmospheric transport or invasive plant control and trail maintenance.A risk evaluation using European Environmental Quality Standards revealed that four pesticides were detected at concentrations exceeding their respective threshold levels, namely imidacloprid, chlorpyrifos, terbuthylazine, and spiroxamine. The omnipresence of imidacloprid in all agricultural catchments and monitoring campaigns are cause for concern. This highlights the need for distinct monitoring approaches and the implementation of tailored mitigation measures. Future sampling of groundwater and wastewater influent and effluent in all study catchments is key to improve our understanding of pesticide transport pathways. | Acetamiprid Chlorpyrifos Imidacloprid Metolachlor Thicloprod Carbendazim Spiroxamine | Some pesticides without year-round agricultural applications (e.g., imidacloprid) had high detection frequencies and concentrations out of the main application season. However, such compounds typically had high Groundwater Ubiquity Scores. This suggests constant leaching of pesticides into groundwater connected to rivers as a possible contamination source.Piketberg had high cumulative drug concentrations which correlated strongly with cumulative pesticide concentrations, whereas Grabouw and Hex River Valley did not. This holds particularly true for carbendazim and terbuthylazine. This suggests that some pesticides in Piketberg are likely sourced from both wastewater treatment plants and agriculture, whereas the absence of drugs in Grabouw and Hex River Valley suggests that pesticides are more likely sourced from agriculture. Herbicide detections in Jonkershoek Nature Reserve (e.g., atrazine) indicate contamination possibly sourced from atmospheric transport or invasive plant control and trail maintenance.A risk evaluation using European Environmental Quality Standards revealed that four pesticides were detected at concentrations exceeding their respective threshold levels, namely imidacloprid, chlorpyrifos, terbuthylazine, and spiroxamine. The omnipresence of imidacloprid in all agricultural catchments and monitoring campaigns are cause for concern. | Passive samplers over February 2022-March 2023 and pesticide monitoring campaign from 2017-2019. | 3 rivers within agricultural catchments (Piketberg, Grabouw, and the Hex River Valley) in the Western Cape. A control sample was deployed in Jonkershoek Nature Reserve. | The researchers deployed passive samplers for two-week intervals every month from February 2022-March 2023 in three rivers within agricultural catchments (Piketberg, Grabouw, and the Hex River Valley) in the Western Cape. A control sample was deployed in Jonkershoek Nature Reserve. A pesticide monitoring campaign from 2017-2019 in the same agricultural catchments identified year-round detections despite few agricultural applications, making sources and drivers of pesticide pollution unclear. Thus, in addition to 44 pesticides, 20 drugs were analysed using LC-MS/MS as an indicator for wastewater treatment plant effluent. | Waste water contamination | NA | NA | NA | Sewage works | Waste water contamination | Fresh water | This study highlights the need for distinct monitoring approaches and the implementation of tailored mitigation measures. | Future sampling of groundwater and wastewater influent and effluent in all study catchments is key to improve our understanding of pesticide transport pathways. | Report/working paper/book – environmental harm | ||
| Curchod L, Oltramare C, Junghans M, Stamm C, Dalvie M, Roosli M, and Fuhrimann S. | Temporal variation of pesticide mixtures in rivers of three agricultural watersheds during a major drought in the Western Cape, SA | 2019 | Water Research X 6 (2020) 100039 | Swiss Tropical and Public Health Institute (STPH), University of Basel, Swiss Federal Institute of Aquatic Science and Technology, Swiss Centre for Applied Ecotoxicology, SA and Institute for Risk Assessment Sciences (IRAS), Utrecht University, The Netherlands. | SA is the leading pesticide user in sub-Saharan Africa. However, little is known about the occurrence of pesticide mixtures in surface water and potential environmental risks in Africa. This study investigated the occurrence of pesticides mixtures in three watersheds during a drought year in SA. The study was conducted in the Krom River, Berg River and Hex River watersheds within larger agriculture systems in the Western Cape. Pesticide spray records were collected from 38 farms. A total of 21 passive water samplers (styrenedivinylbenzene disks (SDB)) were deployed, each for two weeks per month, over seven sampling rounds during the main pesticide application period be- tween July 2017 and January 2018. Samples were analyzed for 248 pesticide compounds using LC-HR- MS/MS. Pesticide occurrence was analyzed for temporal agreement with pesticide spraying events (Cohen’s k) and correlation with rainfall patterns and river discharge (Pearson correlation (rp)). Pesticide time-weighted average concentrations were estimated and compared to environmental quality standards (EQS). According to the farm spray records, 96 different pesticides were sprayed during the sampling period and differed considerably between the three study areas, seasons and crops grown. In total, 53 compounds were detected in river water. We detected 39% of compounds from the spraying records and demonstrated close temporal correlations of seasonal patterns for 11 pesticide compounds between reported on spraying records and observations in the streams (k 1⁄4 0.90). However, 23 detected pesticides were not found on spray records, many of them being herbicides. Most of the estimated two-week average pesticide concentrations were below 40 ng/L. The insecticides imidacloprid, thiacloprid, chlorpyrifos and acetamiprid and the herbicide terbuthylazine exceeded at least once their EQS 58-fold (EQS 13 ng/L), 12-fold (EQS 10 ng/L), 9-fold (EQS 0.46 ng/L), 5-fold (EQS 24 ng/L) and 3-fold (EQS 220 ng/L), respectively. Our study substantially widens the view on pesticide pollution in surface watercompared to previous studies in s-SA by targeting more than 200 pesticides using passive sampling systems. This broad assessment revealed the presence of 53 compounds, some of them in high concentrations, indicating possible adverse effects on biota and the quality of the ecosystem. Whether the observed concentration levels in the year 2017 were exceptional due to the lowest ever recorded rainfall and river discharge needs to be tested with additional data to better understand how pesticide pollution levels manifest under average rainfall and river discharge conditions. | Atrazine Simazine Terbuthylazine Prometon Prometryn. Multiple synthetic herbicide, fungicide, insecticide | The 34 pesticide compounds detected above LOD consisted of 13 fungicides, 12 herbicides and nine insecticides. Out of 34 compounds from the spraying records, which we analyzed, 13 compounds (39%) could be detected. Out of these compounds three (chlorpyrifos, penconazole, spiroxamine) belong to compounds sprayed in the highest quantities according to the spray records. Also, 23 pesticide compounds were detected that were not reported on the spraying records, implying a reporting bias, earlier applications or non- agriculture use for alien vegetation removal and weed control alongside roads. For example, non-reported triazine herbicides (atrazine, simazine, terbuthylazine, prometon and prometryn) were frequently observed in the rivers but not recorded on any spray records. | Between July 2017 and January 2018 | 38 farms located upstream of the water sampling points in Grabouw, in Hex River Valley and in Piketberg (Western Cape). | Pesticide spray records were collected from farms summarizing all reported insecticide and fungicide applications on the crops, interviews, Water sampling was undertaken downstream of the enrolled farms in each valley. The samples were measured by liquid chromatography e high-resolution mass spectrometry (LC-HR-MS/MS) using an XBridge C18 column for chromatography separation. | Agriculture (crop protection) | NA | NA | Leaching | Adverse effects on the biota and quality of the ecosystem | Fresh water | The study results shed light on pesticide pollution from agricultural areas during extreme drought conditions, which are expected to increase in future driven by climate change. | Given the extreme weather conditions during the study, more data are needed to better understand how pesticide pollution levels manifest under average rainfall and river discharge conditions. To adequately address the ecological relevance of pesticide pollution it would be useful to complement the study approach in the future with samples taken at higher temporal resolution and to develop ecotoxicological quality criteria which are specific for the ecological context of southern Africa. | Peer reviewed – environmental harm | |||
| Dabrowski J, Peallb S, Van Niekerkc A, Reineckea A, Dayd J, and Schulz R. | Predicting run off-induced pesticide input in agricultural sub-catchment surface waters: linking catchment variables and contamination | 2002 | Waer Research 36 (2002) 4975-4984 | Department of Zoology, University of Stellenbosch, Department of Health, Forensic Chemistry Laboratory, Cape Town, Department of Geography, University of Stellenbosch, and University of Cape Town, Freshwater Research Unit, SA | An urgent need exists for applicable methods to predict areas at risk of pesticide contamination within agricultural catchments. As such, an attempt was made to predict and validate contamination in nine separate sub-catchments of the Lourens River, SA, through use of a geographic information system (GIS)-based runoff model, which incorporates geographical catchment variables and physicochemical characteristics of applied pesticides. We compared the results of the prediction with measured contamination in water and suspended sediment samples collected during runoff conditions in tributaries discharging these sub-catchments. The most common insecticides applied and detected in the catchment over a 3-year sampling period were azinphos-methyl (AZP), chlorpyrifos (CPF) and endosulfan (END). AZP was predominantly found in water samples, while CPF and END were detected at higher levels in the suspended particle samples. We found positive (po0:002) correlations between the predicted average loss and the concentrations of the three insecticides both in water and suspended sediments (r between 0.87 and 0.94). Two sites in the sub-catchment were identified as posing the greatest risk to the Lourens River mainstream. It is assumed that lack of buffer strips, presence of erosion rills and high slopes are the main variables responsible for the high contamination at these sites. We conclude that this approach to predict runoff-related surface water contamination may serve as a powerfultoolfor risk assessment and management in South African orchard areas. | Azinphos-methyl Chlorpyrifos Endosulfan | The most common insecticides applied and detected in the catchment over a 3-year sampling period were azinphos-methyl (AZP), chlorpyrifos (CPF) and endosulfan (END). AZP was predominantly found in water samples, while CPF and END were detected at higher levels in the suspended particle samples. | 3-year period prior to 2001 | Lourens River catchment, Western Cape, SA | Suspended sediment samples collected during runoff conditions in tributaries discharging these sub-catchments. | Agriculture (crop protection) | NA | NA | NA | Runoff post agric. application | Pesticide contamination | Fresh water | GIS-based runoff model could be used as a simple predictive tool for the assessment of orchard sub-catchments and for the planning and implementation of mitigation strategies. | A significant positive correlation exists between prediction of the loss of pesticide using a simple GIS-based runoff modeland measured concentrations of the same pesticides in surface water discharging sub-catchments of an orchard area. The most important catchment variables determining runoff seem to be buffer strip width, presence of erosion rills and slope. The GIS-based runoff model could be used as a simple predictive tool for the assessment of orchard sub-catchments and for the planning and implementation of mitigation strategies. | Peer reviewed – environmental harm | ||
| Dabrowski J and Schulz R. | Predicted and measured levels of azinphosmethyl in the Lourens river, SA: comparison of runoff and spray drift | 2003 | Environmental Toxicology and Chemistry, vol 22 (3) 494-500 | Freshwater Research Unit, Dep. Of zoology, UCT, and Dep. of Zoology, University of Stellenbosch. This study is part of the ENVIROMAP project, which is a German–SA collaborative project funded by the Volkswagen Stiftung, Hannover (http:// www.tu-bs.de/enviromap) | Runoff and spray drift are important sources of nonpoint pesticide pollution in surface waters, but few studies have directly compared these routes of input in an exposure assessment scenario. To this end, a runoff formula suggested by the Organization for Economic and Cooperative Development (Paris, France) and basic drift values (95th percentiles) were integrated into a geographical information system (GIS) to predict runoff and spray drift–related loading of azinphosmethyl (AZP) in the Lourens River, SA. The GIS-integrated calculations were first validated in the tributaries of the river, where measured loads were well predicted for both runoff (r2 5 0.95; p , 0.0001; n 5 9) and spray drift (r2 5 0.96; p 5 0.0006; n 5 8). Through extrapolation to the catchment scale containing 400 ha of orchards, the GIS-integrated calculations predicted similar loads of AZP as measured in the Lourens River mainstream for six runoff (between a factor of 1.03 and 1.86 lower) and six spray drift (between a factor of 1.1 and 2.4 higher) events. Mean measured loads per event were significantly (p 5 0.004) higher for runoff (27.8 6 19.1 g) than for spray drift (0.69 6 0.32 g). Based on long-term meteorological data and average application regimes, runoff leads to a higher annual load (47.6 g) than spray drift (5.5 g) in the Lourens River. Runoff is clearly a more important source of nonpoint pollution in the studied catchment, and mitigation strategies should focus first on addressing this aspect on a catchment scale and second on addressing problem areas on a subcatchment scale. | Azinphos-methyl | Runoff-related AZP loading in the Lourens River is a far more important nonpoint source than spray drift–related input. | December 1998 and May 2001. | The Forensic Chemistry Laboratory of the Department of National Health, Cape Town. | The direct comparison of runoff and spray drift was done using six runoff and six spray drift events during which AZP, runoff and spray drift samples were analyzed for AZP. Water samples. | Agriculture (crop protection) | NA | NA | NA | Spray drift and runoff | The GIS analysis clearly shows that each tributary in the catchment is influenced simultaneously during a runoff event, resulting in high potential inputof pesticides. | Fresh water | Several options are available for agricultural best management practice or the implementation of buffer strips in order to mitigate the risk of nonpoint-source pollution. Fur- thermore, constructed wetlands are effective in mitigating agricultural runoff and have been shown to significantly reduce aqueous and suspended particle–associated pesticide input from tributaries into the Lourens River mainstream. | This is perhaps the first study that has used and integrated GIS, modeling, and pesticide monitoring to directly compare spray drift and runoff. The result is an efficient, time-saving method to predetermine an area’s vulnerability in terms of runoff- and spray drift–induced pesticide contamination of sur-face waters and thus provides an integrated approach to pes-ticide management of agricultural catchments. While buffer strips can reduce pesticide loss . the presence of erosion rills may jeopardize their positive effect and can thus result in rapid pesticide input. | Peer reviewed – environmental harm | ||
| Dabrowski J, Shadung J, and Wepener V. | Prioritizing agricultural pesticides used in SA based on their environmental mobility and potential human health effects | 2014 | Environmental International 62 (2014) 31-40 | CSIR, Natural Resources and Environment, Pretoria, Centre for Aquatic Research, Department of Zoology, University of Johannesburg, and Water Research Group (Ecotoxicology), Research Unit for Environmental Science and Management, School of Biological Sciences, North West University, SA | SA is the largest user of pesticides in sub-Saharan Africa and many studies have highlighted the occurrence of pesticides in water resources. Poor management of water treatment facilities in combination with a relatively high dependency on untreated water from boreholes and rivers creates the potential for exposure of human communities to pesticides and their associated health effects. Pesticide use, physicochemical and toxicity data was therefore used to prioritize pesticides in terms of their potential risk to human health. After eliminating pesticides used in very low quantities, four indices were used to prioritize active ingredients applied in excess of 1000kg per annum; the quantity index (QI) which ranked pesticides in terms of the quantity of their use; the toxicity potential index (TP), which ranked pesticides according to scores derived for their potential to cause five health effects (endocrine disruption, carcinogenicity, teratogenicity, mutagenicity and neurotoxicity); hazard potential index (HP) which multiplied the TP by an exposure potential score determined by the GUS index for each pesticide (to provide an indication of environmental hazard); and weighted hazard potential (WHP), which multiplied the HP for a pesticide by the ratio of its use to the total use of all pesticides in the country. The top 25 pesticides occurring in each of these indices were identified as priority pesticides, resulting in a combined total of 69 priority pesticides. A principal component analysis identified the indices that were most important in determining why a specific pesticide was included in the final priority list. As crop specific application pesticide use data was available it was possible to identify crops to which priority pesticides were applied to. Furthermore it was possible to prioritize crops in terms of the specific pesticide applied to the crop (by expressing the WHP as a ratio of the total amount of pesticide applied to the crop to the total use of all pesticides applied in the country). This allows for an improved spatial assessment of the use of priority pesticides. The methodology applied here provides a first level of basic, important information that can be used to develop monitoring programmes, identify priority areas for management interventions and to investigate optimal mitigation strategies. | Atrazine Mancozeb Acetochlore Ethylene dibromide Terbuthylazine Glyphosate Sulphur Copper oxychloride Imidacloprid Alachlor MCPA Simazine Paraquat Aldicarb MSMA Trifluralin Potassium-phosphite Potassium-phosphate | Ranking of 69 most hazardous pesticides in SA according to their health hazard. Final list of priority pesticides as ranked by the weighted hazard potential (RankWHP) of the top 25 active ingredients occurring in each of the four calculated prioritization indices list the top 20 as follow: Atrazine, Mancozeb, Acetochlore, Ethylene-dibromide, Terbuthylazine, Glyphosate, sulphur, Copper oxychloride, Imidacloprid, Imidacloprid, Imidacloprid, alachlor, MCPA, simazine, Paraquat, Aldicarb, MSMA, Trifluralin, Potassium-phosphite, Potassium-phosphate. The top 25 pesticides occurring in each index were ranked and included in the final list of priority pesticides. Two pesticides occurred in each of the four indices (acetochlor and ethylene-dibromide), whilst another four pesticides (atrazine, man cozeb, imidacloprid and trifluralin) occurred within the top 25 of the QI and WHP indices as well one of the two toxicity indices (either the TP or the HP). Atrazine and glyphosate and sulphur are used predominantly on maize and grapes, respectively, whilst mancozeb and copper oxychloride are used on a wide range of crops. Considering that maize is the most widely produced crop in the country it is therefore not surprising that atrazine and glyphosate are used in such high quantities. Table 6 (p38) provides the percentage active ingredient applied to specific crops (active ingredients and crops arranged in order of priority with respect to risk to human health). | 2009 data | Country- wide | Agricultural records, database AgroTrakTM. Data from marketing service provider on the use of agricultural active ingredients (collected from, amongst other sources, agrochemi- cal manufacturers, distributors, trade associations and importers) pesticide (to provide an indication of environmental hazard); and weighted hazard potential (WHP), which multiplied the HP for a pesticide by the ratio of its use to the total use of all pesticides in the country. | Agriculture (crop protection) | The study ranks pesticides according to scores derived for their potential to cause five health effects (endocrine disruption, carcinogenicity, teratogenicity, mutagenicity and neurotoxicity); hazard potential index (HP) which multiplied the TP by an exposure potential score determined by the GUS index for each. Only a few pesticides were classified as definiteendocrine disrupting chemicals or EDCs (aldicarb, trifluralin, carbofuran, bromoxynil, carbaryl, acephate, triadimenol, deltamethrin, procymidone, bifenthrin and fenoxycarb) and carcinogens (mancozeb, ethylenedibromide, iprodione, thiodicarb, pymetrozine and procymidone). In general many of the priority pesticides were classified as possible carcinogens or possible EDCs (score of 6). A number of pesticides had fairly low scores for toxicity endpoints, yet were ranked relatively high in terms of priority. These include glyphosate, sulphur and copper oxychloride, copper hydroxide and copper carbonate. | NA | Several | Direct exposure in the field | NA | Water & soil | None | The prioritization approach presented in this paper is simple, yet provides a first level of basic, important information that can be used to develop monitoring programmes, identify priority areas for management interventions and to investigate optimal mitigation strategies. The reliability of sales data as a proxy for pesticide use data has high associated uncertainty but is currently the most effective and widely used means of performing such assessments. An advantage of this methodology is that the final priority list of pesticides was defined based on four indices, ensuring that highly toxic andmobile pesticides, as well as high use pesticides are included. Furthermore, pesticide prioritization processes generally aggregate estimated risks up to a national level. This is because pesticide data is often only available in terms of the total quantity of a pesticide sold (or used). The advantage of using crop specific pesticide data allows for a more disaggregated overview of pesticide risks in that specific priority pesticides can be linked to specific crop types and specific crop types can be prioritized based on the profile of pesticide applied to the crops. This allows for a more refined spatial prioritization of pesticide risksed. | Peer reviewed – policy | ||
| Dabrowski, JM and Balderacchi, M. | Development and field validation of an indicator to assess the relative mobility and risk of pesticides in the Lourens River catchment, SA. | 2013 | Chemosphere, Vol. 93(10): 2433-2443 | CSIR, Natural Resources and Environment, SA, Istituto di Chimica Agraria ed Ambientale, Facoltà di Agraria, Università Cattolica del Sacro Cuore, Italy | A GIS-based pesticide risk indicator that integrates exposure variables (i.e. pesticide application, geographic, physicochemical and crop data) and toxicity endpoints (using species sensitivity distributions) was developed to estimate the Predicted Relative Exposure (PREX) and Predicted Relative Risk (PRRI) of applied pesticides to aquatic ecosystem health in the Lourens River catchment, Western Cape, SA. Samples were collected weekly at five sites from the beginning of the spraying season (October) till the beginning of the rainy season (April) and were semi quantitatively analysed for relevant pesticides applied according to the local farmers spraying programme. Monitoring data indicate that physicochemical data obtained from international databases are reliable indicators of pesticide behaviour in the Western Cape of SA. Sensitivity analysis identified KOC (Organic Carbon-Water Partition Coefficient) as the most important parameter influencing predictions of pesticide loading derived from runoff. A comparison to monitoring data showed that the Predicted Relative Exposure (PREX) successfully identified hotspot sites, gave a reasonable estimation of the relative contamination potential of different pesticides at a site and identified important routes of exposure (i.e. runoff or spray drift) of different pesticides at different sites. All pesticides detected during a monitored runoff event, were indicated as being more associated with runoff than spray drift by the PREX. The Predicted Relative Risk (PRRI) identified azinphos-methyl and chlorpyrifos as high risk pesticides towards the aquatic ecosystem. These results contribute to providing increased confidence in the use of risk indicator applications and, in particular, could lead to improved utilisation of limited resources for monitoring and management in resource constrained countries. | Azinphos-methyl Chlorpyrifos | All pesticides detected during a monitored runoff event, were indicated as being more associated with runoff than spray drift by the PREX. The PRRI identified azinphos-methyl and chlorpyrifos as high risk pesticides towards the aquatic ecosystem. | 2013 | Lourens River catchment, Western Cape, SA | All pesticides detected during a monitored runoff event, were indicated as being more associated with runoff than spray drift by the PREX. The PRRI identified azinphos-methyl and chlorpyrifos as high risk pesticides towards the aquatic ecosystem. | Agriculture (crop protection) | NA | NA | NA | Runoff post agric. application | Run off in aquatic ecosystem. | Fresh water | These results contribute to providing increased confidence in the use of risk indicator applications and, in particular, could lead to improved utilisation of limited resources for monitoring and management in resource constrained countries. | Peer reviewed – environmental harm | |||
| Dabrowski J. | Development of pesticide use maps for SA | 2014 | S Afr J Sci. 2015;111(1/2), Art. #2014-0091, 7 pages | Natural Resources and the Environment, Council for Scientific and Industrial Research, Pretoria, SA | Over 3000 pesticides are registered for use in SA. Many studies have highlighted the movement of pesticides to agricultural crops from the point of application into non-target environments, particularly surface and groundwater resources. Exposure to pesticides can lead to serious human health and environmental effects. It is therefore important to identify critical areas where specific pesticides may result in a high risk of exposure to humans or the environment. Crop specific pesticide use data were obtained from a market research company and integrated into a geographical information system detailing the distribution of agricultural crops in SA as determined by an agricultural census performed in 2002. By estimating the total application of a specific pesticide to all crops produced in a magisterial district, it was possible to generate maps which provide an estimate of the application rate of over 200 pesticides per magisterial district. These maps were intersected with an agricultural land-cover map to provide a refined map giving details of the spatial distribution of pesticide use across the country. These maps are the first of their kind in SA and provide a spatial overview of the likely distribution of specific active ingredients based on the distribution of crops throughout the country. While there are a number of limitations and uncertainties associated with the data used to produce these maps, these are not unique to SA, and similar methodologies have been applied in more developed countries. | Atrazine | The study provides the most detailed overview of pesticide use in SA utilising census and market research; essential for performing spatial assessments of human and environmental risk associated with pesticide use. Crop specific pesticide estimates per magisterial district. The study includes an example of a map showing the average annual use of atrazine per hectare of agricultural land in magisterial districts of SA for the year 2009, estimated from pesticide sales and agricultural crop census data. | The 2009 national land-cover map (NLC 2009) produced by SA National Biodiversity Institute, 2009 market pesticide data. | National, municipal. | Pesticide use data for SA were obtained from the SigmaTM program, by the AgroTrakTM database). The company provides quantified data on the use of agricultural active ingredients. | Agriculture (crop protection) | NA | Market study | NA | Spray drift and runoff | Spray drift from agricultural applications and leachage in river catchments. | Water & soil | Considering the large number of active ingredients used in SA, as well as the expense of monitoring these chemicals, the use of these maps in combination with existing information on the relative risks of pesticides to human health and the aquatic ecosystem18-20 provide guidance on which pesticides should be monitored and where they should be monitored. By combining the maps with information on community access to water, we can identify those communities that may be at risk of pesticide exposure through use of river or groundwater for drinking purposes. Additionally, use of the Blue Drop Report on Drinking Water Quality Performance Management could potentially be used to flag communities at risk of exposure through poor drinking water quality management. A similar approach could be adopted with respect to identifying potential pesticide risks to sensitive aquatic environments. | Freely available annual data on pesticide use are essential to meeting these objectives. Furthermore, the reliability of the maps could be improved through an updated census of crop production statistics in magisterial districts of SA. | Peer reviewed – environmental harm | ||
| Dabrowski J. | Investigation of the Contamination of Water Resources by Agricultural Chemicals and the Impact on Environmental Health | 2015(a) | CSIR, Natural Resources and the Environment WRC Report No. 1956/1/15 ISBN 978-1-4312-0711-4. | Pretoria University and North West University. Water Research Commission (WRC). | Agricultural activity is potentially a source of a number of hazardous chemicals in water resources. Concerns have been expressed that some of the pesticides used in agricultural practice (crop spraying and animal disease control) may enter and pollute the rivers and dams and cause endocrine disrupter effects in animals and humans that use the water for drinking and recreational purposes. A scoping study (Burger and Nel, 2008) indicates that there is no clarity on the extent and level of contamination of water resources by agricultural products with ED (endocrine disrupting) properties. However, a number of WRC studies have been done, identifying different chemicals in different areas that are hazardous as well as having ED properties and some studies identified EDCs in water resources and indicated ED effects in sentinel species in and around contaminated water resources. | Diphenylamine Imazalil Thiabendazole Imidacloprid Propiconzaole Alachlor Atrazine Imidacloprid Simazine Terbuthylazine Carbofuran | The paper details the occurence and levels of water contamination by a wide range of pesticides. Only the most alarming figures are shared here. - The herbicides atrazine, terbuthylazine and simazine and the insecticide imidacloprid were frequently detected in surface and ground water samples at relatively higher concentrations in comparison to other pesticides. - Atrazine and terbuthylazine are highly mobile pesticides and were detected in all water samples collected from all sites at concentrations that were higher than for all other pesticides measured in this study. Both of these herbicides are used in high quantities on maize, which was the dominant crop in the study area (Letsitele catchment). The fact that these herbicides were detected constantly throughout the year (during the wet and dry season), indicates that they have essentially saturated the hydrological cycle. - A large number of additional pesticides were detected in the qualitative screens. Some of these are registered for agricultural use (e.g. metolachlor, terbutryn, ametryn, carbendazim, thiabendazole), while others are used to control bush encroachment (e.g. tebuthiuron and prometon). - Atrazine, imidacloprid, terbuthylazine and carbofuran were quantitatively analysed in water and sediment samples collected from the Lomati River catchment were detected relatively frequently. All four pesticides are regarded as being highly mobile in the environment. Within the context of this study, exposure to pesticides via air presents a greater risk with possible adverse health effects for the time of pesticide application and as a result of the deposition of pesticides in the surrounding area. | Pesticide data 2009 additionally census data 2002 | SA – several catchment areas; Letsitele catchment, Lomati River catchment, Vals and Renoster catchments. | Water and sediment samples were analysed for pesticides by LiquidTech using LC/MS/MS techniques. A qualitative screening approach in combination with a pesticide prioritisation matrix was used to identify target pesticides for further quantitative analysis (see Volume 2 of the report). Screening techniques analysed for the presence of in excess of 200 active ingredients. | Agriculture (crop protection) | Overall, the predicted adverse human health (cancer and toxicity) effects based on exposure to the pesticides detected in water samples collected from all study areas were considered to be low. Within the context of this study, exposure to pesticides via air presents a greater risk with possible adverse health effects for the time of pesticide application and as a result of the deposition of pesticides in the surrounding area. | Residential study | Several | Spray drift and runoff | Spray drift from agricultural applications and leachage in river catchments. | Air & water | The priority list of pesticides produced in this part of this report, in combination with the mobility index has been used to identify pesticides for inclusion into the development of risk based water quality guidelines for irrigation (WRC Project No. K5/2399/4 – Revision of the 1996 South African water quality guidelines: development of a risk-based approach using irrigation water use as a case study). Despite the low hazards posed by pesticides detected in this study, the increased recognition of ED effects from exposure to low concentrations and complexities around concurrent exposure to multiple potential hazards via the water pathway, a precautionary approach is still justified. A more detailed monitoring programme, with a higher frequency of sample collection (or more sites) is warranted for the Free State, so as to establish a more accurate picture of exposure associated risks. A manual providing guidelines on choosing agricultural chemicals that minimise effects in non-target environments (both human and ecological health) should be produced. | It is recommended that regular updates of pesticide use data, spatial crop distribution (through additional census surveys) and associated pesticide use maps are produced and disseminated. The comparatively higher EEq values in combination with the ubiquitous presence of atrazine, simazine and terbuthlyazine in water samples collected from the Vals and Renoster catchments, highlights this area as a priority for further research. An increased frequency of observations is ideally required for the bioassays and suspected organic hazards (e.g. pesticides) in these priority areas (e.g. Vals and Renoster river catchments). Further research should focus on modelling techniques aimed at assessing the fate, transport and mitigation/management options of pesticides in water at multiple scales (field to catchment). An excel spreadsheet (Prioritisation Tool.xlsx) facility has been attached to this report (Part 3) to enable users to prioritise pesticides according to multiple criteria. The spreadsheet makes use of filters which can be used to select specific crops or active ingredients or active ingredients with toxicological endpoints of interest (e.g. those that definitely have ED potential) | Report/working paper/book – environmental harm | ||
| Dabrowski J. | Investigation of the Contamination of WatercResources by Agricultural Chemicals and the impact on Environmental Health. Volume 2: Prioritizing human health effects and mapping sources of agricultural pesticides used in SA. | 2015(b) | CSIR, Natural Resources and the Environment. WRC Report No. TT 642/15 October 2015 | Pretoria University and North West Univercity, Water Research Commission (WRC). | Agricultural activity is potentially a source of a number of hazardous chemicals in water resources. Concerns have been expressed that some of the pesticides used in agricultural practice (crop spraying and animal disease control) may enter and pollute rivers and dams and cause endocrine disrupter effects in animals and humans that use the water for drinking and recreational purposes. A previous scoping study indicates that there is no clarity on the extent and level of contamination of water resources by agricultural products with ED (endocrine disrupting) properties. However, a number of WRC studies have been done, identifying different chemicals in different areas that are hazardous as well as having ED properties and somestudies identified EDCs in water resources and indicated ED effects in sentinel species in and around contaminated water resources. | Atrazine Mancozeb Acetochlore Ethylene dibromide Terbuthylazine Glyphosate Sulphur Copper oxychloride Imidacloprid Alachlor MCPA Simazine Paraquat Aldicarb MSMA Trifluralin Potassium-phosphite Potassium-phosphate | According to their health hazard. Final list of priority pesticides ranked by the WHP (RankWHP) of the top 25 active ingredients occurring in each of the four calculated prioritization indices list the top 20 as follow: Atrazine, Mancozeb, Acetochlore, Ethylene-dibromide, Terbuthylazine, Glyphosate, sulphur, Copper oxychloride,Imidacloprid, Imidacloprid, Imidacloprid, alachlor, MCPA, simazine, Paraquat, Aldicarb, MSMA, Trifluralin, Potassium-phosphite, Potassium-phosphite. The prioritization matrix developed in this Volume 2 of this report provides a valuable indication of pesticides likely to be present in water resources adjacent to specific crop types. Key evidence: Atrazine is number one on the WHP Index and fourth overall taking into account Quantity Index (QI), Toxicity Potential (TP), Hazard Potential (HP), and WHP. Atrazine ss a concern 1) due to higher levels of atrazine presence in water compared to other compounds, 2) due to its endocrine disrupting effects and 3) as a priority pesticide due to high mobility. | Pesticide data, 2009 and additionally census data 2002. | SA – several catchment areas; Letsitele catchment, Lomati River catchment, Vals and Renoster catchments | The prioritization matrix developed in this Volume 2 of this report provides a valuable indication of pesticides likely to be present in water resources adjacent to specific crop types. This was done in 2 phases,. The first phase was aimed at identifying all active ingredients used in agricultural crop production within South Africa. Pesticides were then ranked according to four indices. First, active ingredientswere screened based on their quantity of use and toxicity properties, thus eliminating less important pesticides (i.e. those with low usage and/or toxicity). Remaining pesticides were then prioritised based on quantity of use (Quantity Index – QI). Secondly, pesticides were scored on their potential to cause endocrine disruption, carcinogenic, teratogenic, mutagenic and neurotoxic effects. The individual scores for each endpoint were summed to provide a total toxicity score for each pesticide (Toxicity Potential – TP). The TP scores for each pesticide were then multiplied by a mobility score (determined by the Groundwater Ubiquity Score) to provide an indication of the potential environmental hazard of each pesticide (Hazard Potential – HP). Finally, the potential hazard of the chemical was expressed as a function of its total use in relation to the total use of all active ingredients applied in the country to give a weighted hazard score (Weighted Hazard Potential – WHP). | Agriculture (crop protection) | The study ranks pesticides according to scores derived for their potential to cause five health effects (endocrine disruption, carcinogenicity, teratogenicity, mutagenicity and neurotoxicity). | Residential study | Several | Spray drift and runoff | Air & water | It is recommended that regular updates of pesticide use data, spatial crop distribution (through additional census surveys) and associated pesticide use maps are produced and disseminated. The study dentify pesticides for inclusion into the development of risk based water quality guidelines for irrigation (WRC Project No. K5/2399/4 – Revision of the 1996 South African water quality guidelines: development of a risk-based approach using irrigation water use). | Maps of estimated use (kg/ha) of 206 active ingredients in SA (access to the maps is dependent on the installation of ArcReader, which can be downloaded from the CD or downloaded free of charge at http://www.esri.com/software/arcgis/arcreader (please note that users will have to register an account with Esri in order to download the software). | Report/working paper/book – environmental harm | |||
| Dabrowski J. | An Integrated Approach to Managing and Mitigating the Risk of Agricultural Nonpoint Source Pesticide Pollution to the Aquatic Environment | 2022 | Report to the Water research commision | Pretoria University and North West University. Water Research Commission. | Agricultural nonpoint source pollution (NPS) plays a major role in the degradation of water quality, particularly with regards to pesticides, nutrients and sediment. It has therefore become increasingly important to address the contributions of NPS pollution in management of water quality, an aspect which is seldom considered in SA. The Water Research Commission (WRC) has addressed this gap by funding a number of studies, which, amongst others, have generated a knowledge review of modelling agricultural NPS pollution at multiple scales and developed an integrated modelling approach to prediction of agricultural NPS pollution. As a follow on to the latter project, the WRC is currently funding a more detailed study on the fate and transport of nutrients in agricultural catchments (WRC Project K5/2501). | Atrazine Terbuthylazine Chlorpyrifos Imidacloprid Azinphos-methyl | Atrazine, terbuthylazine, chlorpyrifos, imidacloprid, azinphos-methyl, which are used extensively in agriculture in South | Not specified | Water catchments country wide | Chemcatcher® passive sampler (equipped with a suitable receiving phase membrane) for sampling target pesticides and horizontal and vertically oriented chromatography paper samplers, and modelling – software models aimed at prioritizing risks of pesticides and predicting environmental concentrations in water resources. | Agriculture (crop protection) | NA | NA | NA | Spray drift and runoff | Fresh water | Project outputs directly addresses the Department of Agriculture Draft Pesticide Management Policy (2006) in which the need to minimize hazards and risks to health and the environment was highlighted. | Results from this and other modelling studies strongly support the use of such models in the regulation of pesticides in SA (i.e. during the registration of pesticides as required by Act 36 of 1947). | Report/working paper/book – environmental harm | |||
| Dalvie, M A, London, L, Mbuli, S & Cairncross S. | Knowledge and attitudes in the rural Western Cape towards pesticides in water sources | 2004 | Water SA,2004, Vol 30, 43-50 | Centre for Occupational and Environmental Health Research, School of Public Health and Family Medicine, University of Cape Town, Faculty of Health Sciences, Department of Chemical Engineering, Cape Peninsula University of Technology, SA. | There is a need for pesticide water monitoring in SA and for community awareness with regard to chemical contamination of rural water sources. The results of two descriptive studies in the rural Western Cape are reported. One assessed water usage and the knowledge, attitudes and practices in relation to water of farm residents (229 participants from 60 farms) in the Slanghoek Valley, Hex River Valley and Grabouw (KAP) and the other (monitoring capacity survey), investigated water usage and the capacities of rural communities (63 farm residents from 16 farms in three local authorities and 8 environmental health officers (EHOs) from 7 local authorities) to conduct monitoring of pesticides in rural water sources. Most farm residents in both surveys identified protected sources such as groundwater from springs and boreholes (30 to 60%), and water from mountain dams (40 to 65%), as the most important sources for drinking and other domestic purposes. Many (> 40%), however, also reported farm dams. For use in the field (both drinking and other), potentially contaminated sources (river, subsurface drains, dams) were more frequently reported. Forty-eight percent of participants also reported swimming in farm dams. Other water sources reported included municipal, rain and canal water. In the monitoring capacity survey, 27% reported using untapped water. About a third of respondents in the KAP survey reported living within 10 m of the nearest site of spraying and many used pesticides at home for pest control (41%) and in the garden (33%). While almost all participants (> 90%) in both surveys were aware that pesticides and polluted water could be harmful, many did not identify health effects (20%) especially chronic effects (91%) or reported no training (37%) in health effects. In all 7 districts surveyed in the monitoring capacity survey, water sources on farms are tested by EHOs. Only 3 (37%) respondents felt that there were enough persons conducting water monitoring in their area. Only 1 respondent reported that pesticides were monitored, and only in request to a complaint. Three state laboratories, that did not have the analytical capacity to conduct routine pesticide water monitoring at low (< 0.1 mg/l) detection limits, were identified as conducting water analyses. The study found that farm residents in the Western Cape are potentially exposed to pesticides through various environmental routes including water. This emphasises the need to monitor water for pesticides in the Western Cape, but in order to do this, human and laboratory resources and capacities to conduct routine pesticide water monitoring need to be increased. | General | Farm residents in the Western Cape are potentially exposed to pesticides through various environmental routes including water. | 2004 | Slanghoek Valley, Hex River Valley and Grabouw (KAP) | Descriptive study based on observations and interviews. | Agriculture (crop protection) | Exposure to drift and residues. | Workplace study | Several | Runoff post agric. Application | Contaminaiton of water bodies and sources on and around farms. | Sea water | There is a need to monitor water for pesticides in the Western Cape, which requires increasing human and laboratory resources and capacities to conduct routine pesticide water monitoring. | Peer reviewed – policy | |||
| Dalvie, MA and London. L. | Risk assessment of pesticide residues in South African raw wheat | 2009 | Crop Protection, Volume 28, Issue 10, October 2009, Pages 864-869 | Occupational and Environmental Health Research Unit, School of Public Health and Family Medicine, Faculty of Health Sciences, University of Cape Town. | The presence of pesticide residues in wheat produced and imported in SA was determined and their health risks assessed. Pesticides were detected in all local (median = 1, range: 1–3, n = 71) and imported (median = 1, range: 1–6, n = 13) samples. Multiple pesticides (>1 pesticide) were detected in about 30% local samples and 39% imported samples. Eight different pesticides were detected in total. The most frequently detected pesticides were mercaptothion (99%), permethrin (19%) and chlorpyrifos (17%). Nine (11%) samples exceeded the EU wheat MRL for permethrin (0.05 mg/kg) which included 7 (10%) local samples and 2 (15%) imported samples. The highest fenitrothion level (0.65 mg/kg) corresponds to an intake that was below but near the estimated short-term safety threshold. The results call for an investigation into the levels of pesticide residues in cereal-based food and for tighter regulation and regular monitoring by government and industry. | Mercaptothion Permethrin Chlorpyrifos Permethrin | Pesticides were detected in all local and imported samples analysed. 8 pesticides were detected in total, 6 pesticides in both local and imported samples. All the wheat samples analysed contained pesticide residues and a relatively high proportion exceeded MRLs when compared to the international literature and that the highest fenitrothion level corresponded to an intake near the short-term acceptable intake (ArfD) for wheat. Permethrin (19%) and chlorpyrifos (17%) were the next most frequently detected pesticides, but at substantially lower frequency than mercaptothion. The highest concentration of a single pesticide in a local wheat sample was 1.95 mg/kg mercaptothion and 0.76 mg/kg mercaptothion in an imported sample. Samples from all importing countries, except one, contained only one pesticide (mercaptothion). Nine (11%) samples exceeded the EU wheat MRL (EEC, 2006) for permethrin (0.05 mg/kg) which included 7 (10%) local samples and 2 (15%) imported samples. Only 1 imported sample contained chlorpyrifos above the SA wheat MRL . Pesticide residues appear to be higher in imported samples. | 2005/2006 season | Pesticide residues in wheat produced (with wheat samples, representative of the 30 SA wheat producers and in wheat imported in SA. | Local wheat samples, representative of the 30 SA wheat-producing regions during the 2005/2006 season, were sampled from the quality assurance process conducted on a routine basis by the wheat industry. The sampling procedure was as follows: Individual farmers from around the country, delivered their wheat produce at regional silos. Personnel at the silos collected a small sample from each farmer, graded them and then emptied the samples into a bin representing that particular grade. Personnel collected 480 5kg samples from accumulated produce mixed within each bin at each silo and then sent the samples to the South African Grain Laboratory (SAGL) (Pretoria) for storage. Personnel at SAGL stored the samples in the dark at 10°C before mixing them to form 100 1kg composite samples representative of the 30 wheat-producing regions and six different grades. SAGL then couriered these samples to the Analytical Chemistry Department Laboratory of the Cape Peninsula University of Technology (CPUT) (Bellville),responsible for handling and quality assurance, in March 2006. Due to the budgetary limit, the number of samples was reduced to 71 local samples representative of the various local grades and regions. The wheat industry, at our request, couriered 13 samples of imported wheat from the 6 major countries that supply South Africa directly from storage in silos around the country to the Cape Peninsula University of Technology (CPUT) laboratory. It is noted that the imported samples were not subjected to the same sampling procedure in the respective import countries as the local samples. | Agriculture (crop protection) | Ingestion of wheat containing pesticides levels higher that MRLs. | Workplace study | Pesticide Ingestion | NA | NA | Soil | These findings call for an investigation into the levels of pesticide residues in cereal-based food and for tighter regulation by government and industry. Locally, the high presence of pesticide residues calls for improved residue control at production, tighter regulation of pesticide spraying and also tighter regulation in the sale of pesticides as well as for education of farm personnel and the implementation of integrated pest management methods. There should be stricter monitoring of foreign wheat which should be imported only from countries whose produce contain low residue levels. The results therefore also highlight the need for the regular monitoring of both imported and locally produced food for pesticide residues, as occurs in most developed countries. | Peer reviewed – human harm | |||
| Dalvie MA, Cairncross E, Solomon A, and London L. | Contamination of rural surface and ground water by endosulfan in farming areas of the Western Cape, SA | 2003 | Environ Health. 2003 Mar 10;2(1):1. | Occupational and Environmental Health Research Unit, Department of Public Health, Medical School, University of Cape Town; Department of Physical Science, Peninsula Technicon. | Background: In SA there is little data on environmental pollution of rural water sources by agrochemicals. Results The quantification limit for endosulfan was 0.1 μg/L. Endosulfan was found to be widespread in ground water, surface water and drinking water. The contamination was mostly at low levels, but regularly exceeded the European Drinking Water Standard of 0.1 μg/L. The two most contaminated sites were a sub-surface drain in the Hex River Valley and a dam in Grabouw, with 0.83 ± 1.0 μg/L (n = 21) and 3.16 ± 3.5 μg/L (n = 13) average endosulfan levels respectively. Other pesticides including chlorpyrifos, azinphos-methyl, fenarimol, iprodione, deltamethrin, penconazole and prothiofos were detected. Endosulfan was most frequently detected in Grabouw (69%) followed by Hex River (46%) and Piketberg (39%). Detections were more frequent in surface water (47%) than in groundwater (32%) and coincided with irrigation, and to a lesser extent, to spraying and trigger rains. Total dietary endosulfan intake calculated from levels found in drinking water did not exceed the Joint WHO/FAO Meeting on Pesticide Residues (JMPR) criteria. | Endosulfan Chlorpyrifos Azinphos-methyl Fenarimol Iprodione Deltamethrin Penconazole Prothiofos | The quantification limit for endosulfan was 0.1 μg/L. Endosulfan was found to be widespread in ground water, surface water and drinking water. The contamination (...) regularly exceeded the European Drinking Water Standard of 0.1 μg/L. Other pesticides including chlorpyrifos, azinphos-methyl, fenarimol, iprodione, deltamethrin, penconazole and prothiofos were detected. Endosulfan was most frequently detected in Grabouw (69%) followed by Hex River (46%) and Piketberg (39%). Detections were more frequent in surface water (47%) than in groundwater (32%) and coincided with irrigation, and to a lesser extent, to spraying and trigger rains. Total dietary endosulfan intake calculated from levels found in drinking water did not exceed the Joint WHO/FAO Meeting on Pesticide Residues (JMPR) criteria. | 1998-1999 | 3 intensive agricultural areas in the Western Cape: the Hex River Valley, Grabouw and Piketberg | Monitoring for endosulfan and chlorpyrifos at low levels was conducted as well as screening for other pesticides.Samples were collected directly in clean, dry, 2.5 and 1 L amber glass bottles fitted with a screw cap lined with clean aluminium foil. Samples were kept at ambient temperature in a holding box for transport to the laboratory, where they were stored in a refrigerator until extraction. Sample pH, water temperature, subjective assessment of water level (low, medium or high) and the occurrence of spraying within 1 km of the sampling point were recorded. | Agriculture (crop protection) | Focus on endsulfan, a known endocrine disruptor with estrogenic effects comparable to estradiol. | NA | NA | Leaching | Contamination of rural surface and ground wate | Fresh water | Only two endosulfan drinking water standards – European Commission EEC and Inland California Surface Water Plan (CAISWP) – are available, with the EPA, WHO and SA currently having no endosulfan standardThe study has shown. The need for monitoring of pesticide contamination in surface and groundwater, and the development of drinking water quality standards for specific pesticides in SA. | Peer reviewed – human harm | |||
| Dalvie, MA, Africa, A, Solomons, A, London. L, Brouwer, D, & Kromhout, H. | Pesticide exposure and blood endosulfan levels after first season spray amongst farm workers in the Western Cape, SA | 2009 | Journal of Environmental Science and Health Part B (2009) 44, 271–277 | Occupational and Environmental Health Research Unit, School of Public Health and Family Medicine, Faculty of Health Sciences, University of Cape Town; Cape Peninsula University of Technology; TNO Quality of Life, The Netherlands; and Occupational and Environmental Health Division, Institute for Risk Assessment Sciences, Utrecht University, The Netherlands. | The study investigated serum endosulfan changes resulting from occupational exposure to the pesticide on farms. Eight applicators and 17 non-applicators were tested (serum endosulfan, anthropometry, short exposure questionnaire) before and after the first day of seasonal spraying. Task-based job exposure matrix (JEM) estimates were calculated. Mean baseline serum endosulfan (530 ±0.05 μg/L) was high. Increases in post-spraying endosulfan levels (IPSE) were higher in applicators (mean = 60 ± 90 μg/L) than in non-applicators (mean = 3.5 × 10−6± 90.0 μg/L) adjusting for age (β = 54.0, p = 0.162, R2 = 0.22). There was a weak positive relationship between increases in post-spraying endosulfan levels (IPSE) and JEM estimates. IPSE occurred in applicators and non-applicators and were higher in applicators. The validity of the JEM weightings and characterization of other routes of pesticide exposure require further investigation. | Endosulfan | All workers had detectable baseline serum endosulfan levels (mean = 524.2 ± 49.5 μg/L). This is high in comparison to those found in other settings The post-spraying endosulfan levels of more than half (n=14, 6%) of theworkers increased. The mean post-spraying serum endosulfan level (544.1 ± 82.1) was higher (p > 0.05) than baseline (mean difference = 19.9 μg/L ± 0.0946). This study highlights that pesticide spray mist does impact the endosulfan levels of workers near the spraying area. | Unspecified | A farm in the Hex River Valley, an agriculturally intensive grape–farming area in the Western Cape, SA. | Cross-sectional study comparing post first seasonal spraying increase in serum endosulfan levels to occupational exposures amongst farm residents (n = 25). | Agriculture (crop protection) | Increase in serum endosulfan levels. | Workplace study | Dermal | Direct exposure in the field | NA | Air | N/A | Exposure from walking through the vineyard during and after spraying might be an important route of exposure to pesticides and age is an important confounder. Additionally, factors such as menstruation and history of kidney and/or liver problems need further characterization. | Peer reviewed – human harm | ||
| Dalvie, MA, Africa,A, and London. L. | Change in the quantity and acute toxicity of pesticides sold in South African crop sectors, 1994 –1999 | 1999 | Environment International Vol 35, Issue 4, May 2009, 683-687 | Occupational and Environmental Health Research Unit, School of Public Health and Family Medicine, Faculty of Health Sciences, University of Cape Town | Background: SA pesticide market sales data, for two years, 1994 and 1999, were audited to identify change in total and per hectare mass sold and acute toxicity indicator (ATI) (kg sold/rat oral LD50) in the grape, pome, stone fruit, potato and wheat sectors. Results: Total pesticide sales (62%), amount per hectare (42%) and number of active ingredients (23%) increased in 1999 compared to 1994 with the grape fruit sector, the most significant contributor over the two years. Total (14%) and per hectare ATI (19%) decreased in 1999, but not substantially with the potato sector the most significant contributor. Conclusion: Toxic pesticides were still used in 1999 which highlights a need to develop alternative agricultural and non-chemical pest control methods that reduce usage of pesticides. | Mancozeb Ethylene dibromide Glyphosate Aldicarb Dicamba Classes: Dithiocarbamates, organophosphates, chlorphenoxy pesticides and carbamates | In terms of volume of use, the mass of pesticides sold to the 5 SA agricultural sectors studied increased by about 62% from about 4194 × 103 kg in 1994 to over 6800 × 103 kg in 1999. This is partly due to an increase (14%) in the intensity of pesticides sold probably resulting from the increase (23%) in the number of active ingredients. | Market sales data for 1994 and 1999, | Grape, pome, stone fruit, potato and wheat sectors country wide. | SA pesticide market sales. | Agriculture (crop protection) | NA | Market study | Pesticide ingestion | NA | NA | NA | The research highlights the need to develop alternative agricultural and non-chemical pest control methods that reduce usage of pesticides. | Peer reviewed – human harm | |||
| Dalvie, MA, SoSouth African, MB, Africa, A, Cairncross, E & London,L. | Environmental monitoring of pesticide residues from farms at a neighbouring primary and pre-school in the Western Cape in SA | 2013 | Journal of Environmental Quality 30(3):814-22 | Centre for Occupational and Environmental Health Research, School of Public Health and Family Medicine, University of Cape Town and Faculty of Health Sciences, Department of Chemical Engineering, Cape Peninsula University of Technology, SA. | Concerns about pesticide drift from neighbouring vineyards affecting children attending school on a farm adjacent to an urban suburb of Cape Town, Western Cape in SA were investigated. The study involved a before–after design, measuring levels of environmental exposure before and during pesticide application activities on the neighbouring farms. Samples were collected in air, dust and grass cuttings at the preschool and primary school located on the farms during September–December in 2010 and tested for pesticides using multi-pesticide methods. Eleven different pesticides were detected in the various samples. Six of these chemicals (endosulfan, dimethomorph, penconazole, cyprodinil, boscalid and bromopropylate) were on the spraying schedules of the two farms neighbouring the schools and the timing and location of detection were generally consistent with farm application. Three pesticides detected (chlorpyrifos, cypermethrin, permethrin) are agents commonly used in household applications and one (pyriproxifen) is used in pet treatment agents. Kresoxim-methyl, the other pesticide detected, is likely to come from drift from other farms in the area. The concentration of pesticides was all lower than 0.1 μg/m3 in air and 0.1 μg/kg in dust and grass apart from permethrin and cypermethrin. The findings confirm the presence of drift onto the school premises and concentrations found in this study were generally low in comparison to that detected in other studies. Regular monitoring to track the effectiveness of containment and mitigation measures that reduce drift is recommended. | Endosulfan Dimethomorph Penconazole Cyprodinil Boscalid Bromopropylate Chlorpyrifos Cypermethrin Permethrin Kresoxim-methyl | Confirmed presence of drift onto the school premises and concentrations found in this study were generally low in comparison to that detected in other studies. | 2010 - 2011 | Urban suburb of Cape Town, Western Cape in SA. | Air, dust and grass samples at the two schools were collected before (Phase 1) and during (Phase 2) the 2010/2011 spraying season for neighbouring farms. Sampling for Phase 1 occurred on one day each at the two schools (28–29 September 2010) and for Phase 2 over 4 weeks (7 November–10 December 2010). During Phase 2, sampling occurred over 2 weeks per school (7–12 November & 28 November at the primary school; 21–26 November & 5–10 December at the pre-school). | NA | Exposure to drift and residues. | Residential study | Several | Spray drift & fomites | NA | NA | Regular monitoring to track the effectiveness of containment and mitigation measures that reduce drift is recommended. | Peer reviewed – human harm | |||
| Dalvie, MA, ChannaKalavati, N, Channa, K, and London, L. | Urinary dialkyl phosphate levels before and after first season chlorpyrifos spraying amongst farm workers in the Western Cape, SA | 2011 | Journal of Environmental Science and Health, Part B Pesticides Food Contaminants and Agricultural Wastes. February 2011 46(2):163-72 | Centre for Occupational and Environmental Health, School of Public Health and Family Medicine, Faculty of Health Sciences, University of Cape Town, Cape Town, SA | The study investigated urinary levels of dialkyl phosphates resulting from pesticide exposure amongst 40 farm workers. Workers were tested (urinary dialkyl phosphate levels, anthropometry, short exposure questionnaire) before and after the first day of seasonal chlorpyrifos spraying. Median baseline urinary dialkyl phosphates was high amongst both non-applicators (1587.5 μg/g creatinine, n = 8) and applicators (365.6 μg/g creatinine, n = 9). There was not much evidence of an increase in post-spray dialkyl phosphates levels from pre-spray levels amongst both applicators and non-applicators. Hours mixing, spraying, driving a tractor and hours worked by non-applicators were not significantly associated with an increase in post-spray dialkyl phosphate levels, adjusting for age, height, weight, gender, use of empty pesticide containers and self-reported kidney problems. Past applicator status was weakly positively associated with pre-spray dialkyl phosphate levels adjusting for age, height, weight, and gender, self-reported kidney problems, smoking and alcohol (β= 1019.5, p = 0.307, R² = 0.28). The high dialkyl phosphate levels call for an epidemiological investigation into the health effects of organophosphorous pesticides. | Chlorpyrifos Associated dialkyl phosphates | High dialkyl phosphate (DAP) levels were found post spraying. 17 pre-spray urine samples (42.5%) and 22 (55%) post-spray samples had creatinine levels outside the WHO recommended range. DAP’s were detected in all workers, both before and after spraying and including applicators and non-applicators. Dimethylthiophosphate (DMTP) and dimethyldithiophosphate (DMDTP) were the predominant metabolites detected, while the median level of dimethylphosphate (DMP) and diethylthiophosphate (DETP) was zero and DEP and diethyldithiophosphate (DEDTP) were not detected at all. | Unspecified | A farm in the Hex River Valley, an agriculturally intensive grape–farming area in the Western Cape, SA. | Cross-sectional study investigating the effect of chlorpyrifos spraying on urinary dialkylphosphate (DAP) levels amongst applicators and non-applicators (n = 40). | Agriculture (crop protection) | Exposure to methyl-containing OP pesticides. | Workplace study | Dermal | NA | NA | NA | The high dialkyl phosphate levels call for an epidemiological investigation into the health effects of organophosphorous pesticides. | The fact that farm workers in this intensive farming area and also other intensive farming areas in the Western Cape are exposed to methyl-containing OP pesticides present in the farming environment calls for further studies using urinary TCPY as a biomarker of OP exposure and investigating the health effects of OP pesticides on farm residents in the Western Cape. | Peer reviewed – human harm | ||
| Dalvie, MA, Rother, HA, and London, L. | Chemical hazard communication comprehensibility in SA: Safety implications for the adoption of the globally harmonised system of classification and labelling of chemicals | 2014 | Safety Science Vol 61, January 2014, 51-58 | Centre for Occupational and Environmental Health Research, School of Public Health and Family Medicine, Health Sciences Faculty, University of Cape Town. | Chemical hazard communication is a key strategy to prevent illness and disability from exposures to potentially hazardous chemicals. The Globally Harmonised System of Classification and Labelling of Chemicals (GHS) was developed to strengthen national capacities for safe management of chemicals. In this paper we present the results of a descriptive study on comprehensibility of chemical hazard communication elements. The study of 402 respondents, including 315 workers in the manufacturing, transport and agricultural sectors and 87 consumers was conducted in 2003 to provide data on chemical hazard communication comprehensibility as part of a feasibility study into the possible adoption of the GHS in SA. Data were collected using an interviewer-administered instrument developed for the International Labour Office (ILO) to support GHS implementation. Less than half of respondents reported any training in their current jobs in health and safety, and only 34% on labels. Agricultural workers were far less likely to have received any training. In general, comprehension of hazard communication labels and safety data sheets (SDSs) was low. Symbols such as the skull and crossbones (98%) and the flammable (93%) symbol were relatively well understood (either correct or partly correct responses), but the majority of hazard symbols were of moderate to poor comprehensibility (less than 75% correct or partly correct responses). Significant levels of critical confusions (5% or more) occurred with symbols for corrosive and compressed gas. Co-workers and supervisors were identified as important sources of information. If the GHS is to provide a safety framework, there has to be investment in GHS training that emphasises comprehensibility. There should be a focus on those items causing critical confusion and peer trainers should be used. The GHS should be promoted through media to reach consumers. If the GHS fails to address problems of comprehensibility, it will only succeed in facilitating trade in chemicals without ensuing adequate safety. | Less than half of respondents reported any training in their current jobs in health and safety, and only 34% on labels. Agricultural workers were far less likely to have received any training. The majority of hazard symbols were of moderate to poor comprehensibility (less than 75% correct or partly correct responses). Significant levels of critical confusions (5% or more) occurred with symbols for corrosive and compressed gas. | 2003 | Country wide. | Study of 402 respondents, including 315 workers in the manufacturing, transport and agricultural sectors and 87 consumers. Data were collected using an interviewer-administered instrument developed for the International Labour Office (ILO) to support GHS implementation. | NA | Risk of exposure aggravated by lack of comprehension of labels. | Workplace study | Several | NA | NA | NA | If the GHS is to provide a safety framework, there has to be investment in GHS training that emphasises comprehensibility. There should be a focus on those items causing critical confusion and peer trainers should be used. The GHS should be promoted through media to reach consumers. If the GHS fails to address problems of comprehensibility, it will only succeed in facilitating trade in chemicals without ensuing adequate safety. | Peer reviewed – policy | ||||
| Davies B, Mendoza M, and Rother HA. | Child and adolescent mortality associated with pesticide toxicity in Cape Town, SA, 2010–2019: a retrospective case review | 2023 | BMC Public Health | University of Cape Town | Poisoning of children after exposure to pesticides is a major public health concern, particularly in countries with poorer urban populations, such as SA. This may stem from the illegal distribution and domestic use of street pesticides, which are highly hazardous agricultural pesticides. The aim of this study was to profle paediatric deaths due to acute pesticide poisoning in the west-metropole of Cape Town, SA; to identify whetherthe active ingredients were highly hazardous pesticides according to the FAO and WHO; and to inform policy and public health interventions to prevent future exposures and mortality. A retrospective and descriptive analysis of forensic post-mortem records (2010 to 2019) was conducted to identify cases of paediatric deaths (<18 years old) in the west metropole of Cape Town, involving pesticide poisoning admitted to the Salt River mortuary (one out of 16 mortuaries in the Western Cape province). Demographic, circum‐stantial, autopsy, and toxicological information was captured. Descriptive statistics, together with chi-square tests, Fisher’s probability tests, and Mann–Whitney U tests were used to analyse the data. Results In total, 54 paediatric pesticide deaths were identifed, including 22 (40.7%) males and 32 (59.3%) females, out of 5,181 paediatric unnatural deaths admitted over the 10-year period. The median age of the decedents was 8.3 years (range: 1 day to 17.9 years), with the majority under fve years (42.6%) or between 15 and 18 years old (40.7%). All incidents occurred in peri-urban areas of Cape Town, with most individuals being admitted to hospital(88.9%) for a median survival time of 4.8 h. Toxicological analysis was requested in 50 cases (92.6%) with the organo‐phosphate pesticides terbufos (n=29), methamidophos (n=2) and diazinon (n=2) detected most frequently. Ado‐lescent (15–18 years) suicides (29.6%) and accidental child deaths (<4 years) (18.5%) were common.Conclusions Terbufos and methamidophos are highly hazardous pesticide (HHP) active ingredients registered inSA for agricultural uses, yet commonly sold as street pesticides for domestic use in lower socioeconomic areas. Reducing access and availability of toxic pesticides, especially through the illegal selling of street pesticides, and providing low toxic alternatives to poorer communities, may support mortality reduction initiatives. Mortality and toxicology data provide important, often overlooked, surveillance tools for informing policy and public health interventions to reduce toxic pesticide harm in local communities. " | Terbufos Diazinon Methamidophos | This retrospective and descriptive analysis of forensic post-mortem records (2010 to 2019) conducted to identify cases of paediatric deaths (<18 years old) in the west metropole of Cape Town, involving pesticide poisoning admitted to the Salt River mortuary showed that more than 50% of the deaths were related to terbufos. | 2010 to 2019 | Salt River Mortuary | Medical and forensic. Testing done by the provincial Department of Health, Forensic Pathology Service (FPS) facilities. | Domestic use (rodent & insect control) | Childhood poisoning. | Residential study | Pesticide Ingestion | NA | NA | NA | Terbufos and methamidophos are highly hazardous pesticide (HHP) active ingredients registered in SA for agricultural uses, yet commonly sold as street pesticides for domestic use in lower socioeconomic areas. Reducing access and availability of toxic pesticides, especially through the illegal selling of street pesticides, and providing low toxic alternatives to poorer communities, may support mortality reduction initiatives. Mortality and toxicology data provide important, often overlooked, surveillance tools for informing policy and public health interventions to reduce toxic pesticide harm in local communities. | The findings of the paper on the deaths attributed to Terbufos were shared with government, which was alerted via the Multi-stakeholder Committee on Chemicals Management (MCCM in February 2024. Prof Rother underscored the issue was Terbufos, not Aldicarb.(Source:Testimony of Rother given during the agrotoxins tribunal on March 2025: https://www.youtube.com/live/5B6tcdbL9ng?si=mlg6h5JFBkgdjUhQ) | No governement response. Croplife countered it was Aldicarb. In November 2024, 6 children died from Terbufos poisoning. | Peer reviewed – human harm | |
| Davies, E, Stamm C, Fuhrimann, S. and Chow, R | Mixed pesticide sources identified by using wastewater tracers in rivers of South African agricultural catchments | 2024 | Science of The Total Environment, Vol 956, 15 December 2024, 177206 | Department of Earth Sciences, Stellenbosch University; Swiss Federal Institute of Aquatic Science and Technology, Swiss Tropical and Public Health Institute, Soil Physics and Land Management Group, Wageningen University & Research. | The agriculturally dominated region of the Western Cape, SA is vulnerable to pesticide pollution. A 2017–2019 pesticide monitoring campaign in the agricultural catchments of Grabouw, Piketberg and Hex River Valley identified year-round detections despite few agricultural applications, making pesticide pollution sources unclear. To better trace pesticide sources in these catchments, our study measured 19 pharmaceutical compounds and one industrial chemical as an indicator for wastewater treatment plant (WWTP) effluent – in addition to 44 pesticides. Passive samplers were deployed monthly in rivers from February 2022 to March 2023 in Grabouw, Hex River Valley, and Piketberg, and one control sample in Jonkershoek Nature Reserve (May 2022). Somepesticides without year-round agricultural applications had high detection frequencies and Groundwater Ubiquity Scores, suggesting leaching of pesticides into groundwater connected to rivers. Cumulative pharmaceutical concentrations correlated strongly with cumulative pesticide concentrations only in the Piketberg catchment, suggesting wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs) as a possible pesticide source. Herbicide detections in Jonkershoek Nature Reserve (e.g.,atrazine) suggest contamination from atmospheric transport, invasive plant control or trail maintenance. The Environmental Quality Standard (EQS) for imidacloprid, chlorpyrifos, terbuthylazine and spiroxamine was exceeded at least once during the 1-year monitoring period, mostly related to expected agricultural applications,indicating high persistence and continuous exposure risk to aquatic organisms. Our study is the first to describe the relevance of WWTPs as a pesticide source in SA agricultural catchments. Drivers of pesticide contamination were area dependent, emphasizing the need for catchment-specific understanding. Future research requires sampling of groundwater and wastewater influent and effluent to improve our understanding ofpesticide transport pathways and sources. | Imidacloprid Terbuthylazine Spiroxamine Chlorpyrifos | Study demonstrates the relevance of WWTPs as a pesticide source in SA agricultural catchments. The detection of 22 pesticide compounds, six pharmaceutical compounds and one industrial chemical revealed that pesticide pollution originating from WWTPs may be of greater importance than previously assumed. imidacloprid, chlorpyrifos, terbuthylazine and spiroxamine exceeded Environmental Quality Standard (EQS) at least once during the 1-year monitoring period, mostly related to expected agricultural applications, indicating high persistence and continuous exposure risk to aquatic organisms. | 2017–2019 and 2022-2023 | Agricultural catchments of Grabouw, Piketberg and Hex River Valley, Western Cape. | Pesticide monitoring campaign during which the study measured 19 pharmaceutical compounds and one industrial chemical as an indicator for wastewater treatment plants (WWTP) effluent, in addition to 44 pesticides. Passive samplers in the agricultural catchments. Deploying of passive samplers from February 2022 to March 2023 (PolyStyreneDivinylBenzene-Reverse Phase Sulfonate (SDB-RPS) 47 mm disks with polyether sulfone (PES) 0.45 μm, 47 mm membranes). | Agriculture (crop protection) | NA | NA | NA | Sewage works | As well as the usual agricultural routes of contamination findings suggest wastewater treatment plant (WWTP) effluent contains pesticides. | Fresh water | Future pesticide pollution monitoring should be led by governmental agencies (e.g., Department of Water and Sanitation) with close collaborations with research institutions. The relevance of WWTPs as a pesticide source in South African agricultural catchments. The detection of 22 pesticide compounds, six pharmaceutical compounds and one industrial chemical revealed that pesticide pollution originating from WWTPs may be of greater importance than previously assumed. Imidacloprid, terbuthylazine, chlorpyrifos and spiroxamine exceeded EQS values during the 2022 to 2023 campaign; thus, should be prioritized in future water quality monitoring. | Peer reviewed – environmental harm | |||
| Degrendele C, Klánová J, Prokeš R, Příbylová P, Šenk P, Šudoma M, Röösli M, Dalvie M, Fuhrimann S | Current use pesticides in soil and air from two agricultural sites in SA: Implications for environmental fate and human exposure | 2022 | Science of the Total Environment, Vol 807, Part 1, 10 February 2022, 150455 | Masaryk University, RECETOX Centre, Czech Republic University of Basel, Basel, Switzerland Swiss Tropical and Public Health Institute (Swiss TPH), Basel, Switzerland Centre for Environmental and Occupational Health Research, School of Public Health and Family Medicine, University of Cape | Concerns about the possible negative impacts of current use pesticides (CUPs) for both the environment and human health have increased worldwide. However, the knowledge on the occurrence of CUPs in soil and airand the related human exposure in Africa is limited. This study investigated the presence of 30 CUPs in soil and air at two distinct agricultural sites in SA and estimated the human exposure and related risks torural residents via soil ingestion and inhalation (using hazard quotients, hazard index and relative potency factors). We collected 12 soil and 14 air samples over seven days during the main pesticide application season in 2018. All samples were extracted, purified and analyzed by high-performance liquid chromatography coupled with tandem mass spectrometry. In soils, nine CUPs were found, with chlorpyrifos, carbaryl and tebuconazole having the highest concentrations (up to 63.6, 1.10 and 0.212 ng g−1 to inhalation (i.e. <5%). The pesticide environmental exposure largely differed between the residents of the two distinct agricultural sites in terms of levels and composition. The estimated human health risks due to soil inges-tion and inhalation of pesticides were negligible although future studies should explore other relevant pathways. | Chlorpyrifos Carbaryl Tebuconazole | The study detected the occurence of several HHPs but in low levels, most probably due to past use which still persits in soils. In soils, nine CUPs were found. Carbaryl, chlorpyrifos and terbuthylazine had the highest hazard quotients Compared to inhalation, soil ingestion represented a minor pathway (i.e. <5% of the total daily intake) for most of the CUPs investigated. However, in the case of chlorpyrifos in Grabouw, in some cases, the uptake via soil ingestion was higher than from inhalation. This exposure pathway could be important and should be considered in future health impact assessment of pesticides, particularly for agricultural res- idents who are generally exposed to higher levels of pesticides than those in urban areas. This also highlights the significant role of crop-specific pesticide use on human exposure to pesticides, even within small spatial scales. For example, habitants living in Grabouw are exposed via inhalation and soil ingestion to carbaryl levels about 30 times higher than those in Hex River Valley (result to be treated with caution). | main pesticide application season in 2018. | two distinct agricultural sites in SA | The researchers collected 12 soil and 14 air samples over seven days during the main pesticide application season in 2018. All samples were extracted, purified and analyzed by high-performance liquid chromatography coupled with tandem mass spectrometry. | Agriculture (crop protection) | This is the first study to assess the human exposure to a wide range of pesticides via inhalation and soil ingestion of African residents. Exposure levels were substantially below reference doses. The suggest a low health risk from inhalation and soil ingestion of pesticides in the studied areas but the health risks pre- sented here might be underestimated for several reasons. | Residential study | Soil ingestion & inhalation | Direct exposure in the field | NA | Air & water | Future studies should focus on other environmental matrices at the household level (e.g. dust) to determine the impact of agricultural activities on the residential exposure of agricultural residents. | Future studies should assess the impact of pesticide formulation and spraying parameters on the gas-particle partitioning of CUPs. Future studies should focus on other environmental matrices at the household level (e.g. dust) to determine the impact of agricultural activities on the residential exposure of agricultural residents. As carbaryl, chlorpyrifos and terbuthylazine had the highest hazard quotients, further studies should assess the human uptakes via other exposure pathways in order to deepen our understanding of the human exposure to these pesticides in these two agricultural areas. | Peer reviewed – human harm | ||
| Donald KA, Adnams, CM , Rother, A,Tsze, D, Brand, D & London. L. | P102 – 2305: Long-term neurodevelopmental and behavioural outcomes of acute organophosphate poisoning in South African children | 2015 | European Journal of Paediatric Neurology, Vol. 19, S123 | Division of Developmental Paediatrics, Department of Paediatrics and Child Health, Red Cross War Memorial Children's Hospital, University of Cape Town | Organophosphate poisoning (OPP) is a significant cause of mortality in resource-poor countries, especially in economies such as that of SA where agricultural activity remains an important contributor to the economy. Long-term neurobehavioural sequelae of OPP have been reported in adults, but little is known about the neurodevelopmental outcomes of children who survive acute organophosphate pesticide poisoning, including that from domestic exposure. This study aimed to determine the performance of South African children surviving acute episodes of OPP on a standardized neurobehavioural battery compared to a control group of children previously admitted to hospital with paraffin poisoning. Methods: Children were included of 3–12 years with a previous admission for OPP to the Red Cross Children's Hospital, Cape Town. The control group comprised children admitted for paraffin poisoning and were matched to the index group for age, gender, home language, admission date and illness severity. All children were assessed for neurodevelopmental function. Caregivers were administered a questionnaire-based behavior rating scale, Achenbach System of Empirically Based Assessment. The neurodevelopmental performance and behaviour of OPP children was compared to that of the controls.Results: A total of 91 children were tested, 46 OPP and 45 control children. No between group differences were found on any measures. Although there were no significant differences between the children with OPP and those with acute paraffin exposure on preliminary analysis, possible explanations for this include sample size too small to detect subtle differences, exclusion from the study of children who had severe neurodisability or who had died due to OPP. Between group effects of these children may also have been masked by high prevalence risk factors in SA for poor development such as low socio-economic status, HIV exposure, maternal alcohol and smoking during pregnancy and poor maternal mental health. | General organophosphates | No between group differences were found on any measures between the performance of South African children surviving acute episodes of OPP on a standardized neurobehavioural battery compared to a control group of children previously admitted to hospital with paraffin poisoning. | Unspecified | Red Cross Children's Hospital, Cape Town | Children were included who were 3–12 years with a previous admission for OPP to the Red Cross Children's Hospital, Cape Town. The control group comprised children admitted for paraffin poisoning and were matched to the index group for age, gender, home language, admission date and illness severity. All children were assessed for neurodevelopmental function. Caregivers were administered a questionnaire-based behavior rating scale, Achenbach System of Empirically Based Assessment. The neurodevelopmental performance and behaviour of OPP children was compared to that of the controls. | Domestic use (rodent & insect control) | Impact on neurodevelopmental functions | Residential study | Pesticide ingestion | NA | NA | NA | Peer reviewed – human harm | ||||
| Du Plessis, CE,Marksa, CJ, and Stephen, CR. | Paraquat poisoning exposures: a South African Poisons Information Helpline experience | 2023 | Paper presented during the 43rd EAPCCT 2023 Palma de Mallorca | Stellenbosch University, Cape Town, University of Cape Town, Cape Town, SA | Objective: Paraquat, a non-selective herbicide, is highly toxic to humans. Although the lungs are the main target organ, ingestion of 20–30mL can cause multi-organ failure within 24 hours. Currently, no effective treatment is available, resulting in a high mortality rate. Agricultural pesticide poisonings play a major role in the global burden of suicide ; however, literature on the incidence of paraquat exposures on the African continent is limited. Therefore, the aim of this study is to describe the incidence of paraquat poisoning exposures as received by the Poison Information Helpline, Western Cape (PIHWC), SA. Methods: We conducted a retrospective review of calls to the PIHWC related to paraquat exposures during a six-year period (January 2016 – December 2021). All human-related paraquat poisoning exposure data collected were extracted from the database, excluding repeat calls concerning the same case. Key variables included patient demographics, circumstances of exposure, clinical presentation, severity of clinical features according to the Poisoning Severity Score (PSS) and outcomes. Results: There were 117 human-related paraquat exposures received by the PIHWC. The majority of the exposures were received from state hospitals, 98 patients (83.8%), involving 94 adults (80.3%), and 81 male patients (69.2%). Overall, almost two thirds(61.5%) of the ingestions were intentional, including 15 (88.2%) adolescent exposures. Vomiting was the symptom most often recorded, in 53 (45.3%) cases. Other symptoms included oesophageal discomfort (40; 34.2%), oral lesions (14; 12.0%), renal impairment (16; 13.7%) and respiratory compromise (17; 14.5%). At the time of the calls, most patients (61; 51.3%) had mild resolving symptoms (PSS1) with 15 patients (12.8%) having severe or life-threatening symptoms and signs (PSS3). Four deaths were recorded, including one child. Conclusion: Paraquat poisoning cases were seldom followed up, which might have resulted in an underestimation of the true mortality rate of this study. Also, all poisoning cases are not reported to the PIHWC, therefore the incidence of paraquat poisoning in SA may be much higher than the study indicated. Improved safety measures across several regulatory authorities should be put in place, to limit exposures and prevent self-harm. | Paraquat | There were 117 human-related paraquat exposures received by the PIHWC. The majority of the exposures were received from state hospitals, 98 patients (83.8%), involving 94 adults (80.3%), and 81 male patients (69.2%). Overall, almost twothirds (61.5%) of the ingestions were intentional, including 15 (88.2%) adolescent exposures. 4 deaths were recorded. | January 2016–December 2021 | Poison Information Helpline, Western Cape (PIHWC), SA | Retrospective review of calls to the PIHWC related to paraquat exposures during a six-year period. All human-related paraquat poisoning exposure data collected were extracted from the database, excluding repeat calls concerning the same case. Key variables included patient demographics, circumstances of exposure, clinical presentation, severity of clinical features according to the Poisoning Severity Score (PSS) and outcomes | Agriculture (crop protection) | Mostly ingested for self harm. Vomiting was the symptom most often recorded, in 53 (45.3%) cases. Other symptoms included oesophageal discomfort (40; 34.2%), oral lesions (14; 12.0%), renal impairment (16; 13.7%) and respiratory compromise (17; 14.5%). At the time of the calls, most patients (61; 51.3%) had mild resolving symptoms (PSS1) with 15 patients (12.8%) having severe or life-threatening symptoms and signs (PSS3). Four deaths were recorded, including one child. | Residential study | Pesticide Ingestion | NA | NA | NA | All poisoning cases are not reported to the PIHWC, therefore the incidence of paraquat poisoning in SA may be much higher than the study indicated. Improved safety measures across several regulatory authorities should be put in place, to limit exposures and prevent self-harm. | The registrare asked Dr Stephen, who sits on the MCCM, to provide evidence on the dangers associated with paraquat. | Governement was "thankful" for receiving this informaiton and it assumed this was used to put paraquat on the list of HHps to be banned. | Report/working paper/book – human harm | |
| Eskenazi B, Chevrier J, Rosas LG, Anderson HA, Bornman MS, Bouwman H, Chen A, Cohn BA, de Jager C, Henshel DS, Leipzig F, Leipzig JS, Lorenz EC, Snedeker SM, Stapleton D. | The Pine River statement: human health consequences of DDT use | 2009 | Environ Health Perspect. 2009 Sep;117(9):1359-67. | School of Public Health, University of California-Berkeley, 2150 Shattuck Avenue, Berkeley, CA 94720, USA | Objectives: Dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane (DDT) was used worldwide until the 1970s, when concerns about its toxic effects, its environmental persistence, and its concentration in the food supply led to use restrictions and prohibitions. In 2001, more than 100 countries signed the Stockholm Convention on Persistent Organic Pollutants (POPs), committing to eliminate the use of 12 POPs of greatest concern. However, DDT use was allowed for disease vector control. In 2006, the World Health Organization and the U.S. Agency for International Development endorsed indoor DDT spraying to control malaria. To better inform current policy, we reviewed epidemiologic studies published from 2003 to 2008 that investigated the human health consequences of DDT and/or DDE (dichlorodiphenyldichloroethylene) exposure. Data sources and extraction: We conducted a PubMed search in October 2008 and retrieved 494 studies. Data synthesis: Use restrictions have been successful in lowering human exposure to DDT, but blood concentrations of DDT and DDE are high in countries where DDT is currently being used or was more recently restricted. The recent literature shows a growing body of evidence that exposure to DDT and its breakdown product DDE may be associated with adverse health outcomes such as breast cancer, diabetes, decreased semen quality, spontaneous abortion, and impaired neurodevelopment in children. Conclusions: Although we provide evidence to suggest that DDT and DDE may pose a risk to human health, we also highlight the lack of knowledge about human exposure and health effects in communities where DDT is currently being sprayed for malaria control. We recommend research to address this gap and to develop safe and effective alternatives to DDT. | DDT DDE | Exposure to DDT and its breakdown product DDE may be associated with adverse health outcomes such as breast cancer, diabetes, decreased semen quality, spontaneous abortion, and impaired neurodevelopment in children. | 2009 Litterature review | Global | Literature review | Malaria control | Exposure to DDT and its breakdown product DDE may be associated with adverse health outcomes such as breast cancer, diabetes, decreased semen quality, spontaneous abortion, and impaired neurodevelopment in children. | Residential study | Several | NA | NA | NA | The study highlights the lack of knowledge about human exposure and health effects in communities where DDT is currently being sprayed for malaria control and recommends research to address this gap and to develop safe and effective alternatives to DDT. | Peer reviewed – policy | |||
| Fuhrimann S, Klanov J, Pribylova P, Kohoutek J, Dalvie A, Ro€osli M, & Degrendele C. | Qualitative assessment of 27 current-use pesticides in air at 20 sampling sites across Africa | 2020 | Chemosphere, 258 (2020): 127333 | Centre for Environmental and Occupational Health Research, School of Public Health and Family Medicine, University of Cape Town, SA, Institute for Risk Assessment Sciences (IRAS), Utrecht University, The Netherlands, Masaryk University, Faculty of Sciences, RECETOX Centre, Czech Republic, Swiss Tropical and Public Health Institute (Swiss TPH), Basel, Switzerland and University of Basel, Switzerland. | Increasing use of current-use pesticides (CUPs) in Africa raises environmental and public health concerns. But there is a large uncertainty about their occurrence and the composition of pesticide mixtures on this continent. This paper investigates the presence of 27 CUPs in air across 20 sampling sites in Africa. 166 passive air samples, consisting of polyurethane foam (PUF), were collected in 12 African countries between 2010 and 2018. Samples were extracted with methanol and analyzed via high-performance liquid chromatography coupled with tandem mass spectrometry. The detection frequencies of CUPs per site were compared to land use patterns and sampling years, while their similarities were assessed using hierarchical cluster analysis. Overall, 24 CUPs were detected at least once. In 93% of all samples, at least one CUP was detected, while 78% of the samples had mixtures of two or more CUPs (median 3, interquartile range 5). Atrazine and chlorpyrifos were detected in 19 out of 20 sampling sites. Carbaryl,metazachlor, simazine, tebuconazole and terbuthylazine had the highest detection frequencies at sampling sites dominated by croplands. Across all the sampling years, 16 CUPs were present. Seven CUPs were newly detected from 2016 onwards (azinfos-methyl, dimetachlor, chlorsulfuron, chlortoluron, isoproturon, prochloraz and pyrazon), while metamitron was only present before 2012. Sites within a radius of about 200 km showed similarities in detected CUP mixtures across all samples. Our results show the presence of CUP mixtures across multiple agricultural and urban locations in Africa which requires further investigation of related environmental and human health risks. | Acetochlor Alachlor Atrazine Chlorsulfuron Chlorotoluron Dimetachlor Diuron Isoproturon Metamitron Metazachlor Metribuzin Pyrazon Simazine S-metolachlor Terbuthylazine Azinphos-methyl Carbaryl Chlorpyrifos Dimethoate Fenitrothion Malathion Pirimicarb Terbufos Carbendazim Prochloraz Propiconazole Tebuconazole | 27 currently in use pesticides (CUPs) belonging to 12 chemical groups were targeted. These were 15 herbicides (acetochlor, alachlor, atrazine, chlorsulfuron, chlorotoluron, dimetachlor, diuron, isoproturon, metamitron, metazachlor, metribuzin, pyrazon, simazine, S-metolachlor and terbuthylazine), 8 insecticides (azinfos-methyl, carbaryl, chlorpyrifos, dimethoate, fenitrothion, malathion, pirimicarb and terbufos) and four fungicides (carbendazim, prochloraz, propiconazole and tebuconazole). Atrazine, chlorpyrifos and carbaryl, S- Metolachlor, tebuconazole terbuthylazine and malathion were the most present. Pesticides the most frequently found or exceeding EQS: acetamiprid, atrazine, chlorpyrifos, carbaryl, S- Metolachlor, tebuconazole, terbuthylazine, malathion, imidacloprid and thiacloprid. Pesticides exceeding Environmental Quality Standards (EQS) included the insecticide imidacloprid and thiacloprid, chlorpyrifos, acetamiprid and terbuthylazine, which were detected at least once 12, 9, 5 and 3-fold above the EQS, respectively. The herbicide atrazine and the insecticide chlorpyrifos were both present at 19 out of 20 sites. Atrazine was the most frequently detected pesticide in our study and observed over the continent irrespective of land use, region or sampling year. A potential reason for the widespread detection of atrazine could be its extensive application in corn and wheat production, notably being the most sold pesticide in SA in 2009. 2010). Chlorpyrifos was found in half of all samples in this study. The consistent presence (i.e. in more than 25% of the samples) of seven CUPs (atrazine, chlorpyrifos and carbaryl, S-Metolachlor, tebuconazole terbuthylazine and malathion) over the sampling years and sampling sites points to a group of priority CUPs. | 2010-2018 | 12 sampling sites located on the African mainland and two on islands – with SA constituting the biggest sampling cluster. | 166 passive air samples were collected at 20 sampling sites over 14 different countries. The sampling sites were selected along a wide range of land uses (i.e. urban, industrial, rural, background and desert) and to provide insight on the long-distance air movement of chemicals and primary sources. At all sampling sites, passive air sampling was performed using polyurethane foam (PUF) disks (15 cm diameter, 1.5 cm thickness) placed between two stainless steel bowls forming a chamber allowing the air to blow freely between the bowls and protecting the PUF disks from precipitation or sunlight. In total, 166 PUF disks were collected at a height between 1.5 and 3 m above the ground. | Agriculture (crop protection) | NA | Residential study | Inhalation | Spray drift | Pesticide concentration in the air | Air | Given the expected increase in CUP use over the next decades in Africa, there is an urgent need to expand air monitoring to a larger spectrum of CUPs beyond those targeted in this study. Data obtained here on the environmental occurrence of CUPs could also help local decision-makers during the registration or re-evaluation processes of pesticide products. Further research and regulatory attention in Africa should focus on atrazine and chlorpyriphos and also be given to carbaryl, acetochlor, azinfos-methyl, carbendazim, isoproturon, propiconazole and pyrazon, as they were detected at various sites and are all banned in the EU due to environmental and/or health. Data obtained here on the environmental occurrence of CUPs could also help local decision-makers during the registration or re-evaluation processes of pesticide products. | The consistent presence (i.e. in more than 25% of the samples) of seven CUPs (atrazine, chlorpyrifos and carbaryl, S- Metolachlor, tebuconazole terbuthylazine and malathion) over the sampling years and sampling sites points to a group of priority CUPs that should be taken-up in regular monitoring programs, not only in Africa but also at the global scale. The presence of CUP mixtures across multiple agricultural and urban locations in Africa requires further investigation of related environmental and human health risks. The frequent presence of pesticide mixtures in the air requires further investigation of related environmental and human health risks. | Peer reviewed – environmental harm | ||
| Fuhrimann S, Mol H, Dias M, Dalvie M, Röösli M, Degrendele C, Figueiredo M, Huss A, Portengen, L, & Vermeulen R | Quantitative assessment of multiple pesticides in silicone wristbands of children/guardian pairs living in agricultural areas in SA | 2022 | Science of The Total Environment, Vol. 812,2022,152330 | Institute for Risk Assessment Sciences (IRAS), Utrecht University, Utrecht, The Netherlands; Swiss Tropical and Public Health Institute (Swiss TPH); University of Basel, Switzerland; Wageningen Food Safety Research (WFSR), Wageningen University & Research, The Netherlands; Centre for Environmental and Occupational Health Research, School of Public Health and Family Medicine, University of Cape Town, SA & Masaryk University, Faculty of Sciences, RECETOX Centre, Brno, Czech Republic g Now at Laboratory of Chemistry and Environment, Aix Marseille University, Marseille, France | Little is known about personal and time-integrated exposure to past and current used pesticides in agricultural areas and within-family exposure similarities. We aimed to assess exposure to pesticides using silicone wristbands in child/guardian pairs living on farms and in villages within two agricultural areas in SA. Using silicone wristbands, we quantified 21 pesticides in child/guardian pairs in 38 households over 6 days in 2018. Levels (in ng/g wristband) of pesticides and their transformation products (12 current-use pesticides and nine organochlorine pesticides) were measured using GC–MS/MS. We assessed the correlation between pesticide levels and between household members using Spearman correlation coefficients (rs). Multivariable generalized least squares (GLS) models, using household ID as intercept, were used to determine level of agreement between household members, exposure differences between children and guardians and exposure predictors (study area, household location [farm vs. village] and household pesticide use). We detected 16 pesticides with highest detection frequencies for deltamethrin (89%), chlorpyrifos (78%), boscalid (56%), cypermethrin (55%), and p,p′-DDT (48%). Most wristbands (92%) contained two or more pesticides (median seven [range one to 12]). Children had higher concentrations than guardians for four pesticides. Correlation between the pesticide levels were in most cases moderate (rs 0.30–0.68) and stronger in children than in guardians. Five pesticides showed moderate to strong correlation between household members, with the strongest correlation for boscalid (rs 0.84). Exposure differences between the two agricultural areas were observed for chlorpyrifos, diazinon, prothiofos, cypermethrin, boscalid, p,p′-DDT and p,p′-DDE and within areas for cypermethrin. We showed that for several pesticides, children had higher exposure levels than guardians. The positive correlations observed for child/guardian pairs living in the same household suggest non-occupational shared exposure pathways in these communities. | DDT DDE DDD Deltamethrin Chlorpyrifos Boscalid Cypermethrin Prothiofos | Most wristbands (92%) contained two or more pesticides (median seven (range one to 12)). Pesticides belonging to the chemical groups of the organophosphates and pyrethroids were detected in the majority of the participants. Children had higher concentrations than guardians for four pesticides. Correlation between the pesticide levels were in most cases moderate (rs 0.30–0.68) and stronger in children than in guardians. Five pesticides showed moderate to strong correlation between household members, with the strongest correlation for boscalid (rs 0.84). The organophosphates chlorpyrifos and prothiofos were detected in high concentrations on the wristbands, likely linked to ongoing use in the areas. and their long half-lives in the soil of up to a year. The two detected pyrethroids were previously reported to be used in households and on farms. Pesticides banned for agricultural use (DDT and endosulfan and their degradation products) were detected in 50% of the wristbands. The detection of both DDT and endosulfan could be the result of historical use and contaminated soils around apple and grape farming areas respectively. | Over six days in 2018 | Farms and in villages within two agricultural areas in SA. | Using silicone wristbands, we quantified 21 pesticides in child/guardian pairs in 38 households over six days in 2018. Levels (in ng/g wristband) of pesticides and their transformation products (12 current-use pesticides and nine organochlorine pesticides) were measured using GC–MS/MS. We assessed the correlation between pesticide levels and between household members using Spearman correlation coefficients (rs). Multivariable generalized least squares (GLS) models, using household id as intercept, were used to determine level of agreement between household members, exposure differences between children and guardians and exposure predictors (study area, household location [farm vs. village] and household pesticide use). | Agriculture (crop protection) | Children with higher concentrations than guardians for four pesticides. | Residential study | Several | Spray drift and fomites | NA | Air, water & soil | The positive correlations observed for child/guardian pairs living in the same household suggest non-occupational shared exposure pathways in these communities. | The study was only conducted over a week with a limited pesticide target list; however, waistband method still produced results. | Peer reviewed – human harm | ||
| Fuhrimann S, Wan C, Blouzard E, Veludo A, Holtman Z, Chetty-Mhlanga S, Dalvie M, Atuhaire A, Kromhout H, Röösli M & Rother H | Pesticide Research on Environmental and Human Exposure and Risks in Sub-Saharan Africa: A Systematic Literature Review | 2021 | International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 2022, 19: 259 | Swiss Tropical and Public Health Institute (Swiss TPH); Faculty of Science, University of Basel, Switzerland; Institute for Risk Assessment Sciences (IRAS), Utrecht University, The Netherlands; Department of Environmental Systems Science, Switzerland; Centre for Environmental and Occupational Health Research, School of Public Health and Family Medicine, University of Cape Town, Division of Environmental Health, School of Public Health and Family Medicine, University of Cape Town, SA & Uganda National Association of Community and Occupational Health (UNACOH), Kampala 12590, Uganda. | On the African continent, ongoing agriculture intensification is accompanied by the increasing use of pesticides, associated with environmental and public health concerns. Using a systematic literature review, we aimed to map current geographical research hotspots and gaps around environmental and public health risks research of agriculture pesticides in sub-Saharan Africa (SSA). Studies were included that collected primary data on past and current-used agricultural pesticides and assessed their environmental occurrence, related knowledge, attitude and practice, human exposure, and environmental or public health risks between 2006 and 2021. We identified 391 articles covering 469 study sites in 37 countries in S-SA. Five geographical research hotspots were identified: two in SA, two in East Africa, and one in West Africa. Despite its ban for agricultural use, organochlorine was the most studied pesticide group (60%; 86% of studies included DDT). Current-used pesticides in agriculture were studied in 54% of the study sites (including insecticides (92%), herbicides (44%), and fungicides (35%)). Environmental samples were collected in 67% of the studies (e.g., water, aquatic species, sediment, agricultural produce, and air). In 38% of the studies, human subjects were investigated. Only a few studies had a longitudinal design or assessed pesticide’s environmental risks; human biomarkers; dose-response in human subjects, including children and women; and interventions to reduce pesticide exposure. We established a research database that can help stakeholders to address research gaps, foster research collaboration between environmental and health dimensions, and work towards sustainable and safe agriculture systems in S-SA. | Organochlorine (DDT). General insecticides, herbicides and fungicides. General | The systematic literature review to map current geographical research hotspots and gaps around environmental and public health risks research of agriculture pesticides in sub-Saharan Africa (SSA) found that despite its ban for agricultural use, organochlorine was the most studied pesticide group (60%; 86% of studies included DDT). Current-used pesticides in agriculture were studied in 54% of the study sites (including insecticides (92%), herbicides (44%), and fungicides (35%)). | Environmental or public health risks between 2006 and 2021. | 37 countries in sub-Sahara Africa | Literature with primary data. Studies were included that collected primary data on past and current-used agricultural pesticides and assessed their environmental occurrence, related knowledge, attitude and practice, human exposure, and environmental or public health risks. | NA | NA | NA | Several | NA | Environmental samples were collected in 67% of the studies (e.g., water, aquatic species, sediment, agricultural produce, and air). | Air, water & soil | We established a research database that can help stakeholders to address research gaps, foster research collaboration between environmental and health dimensions, and work towards sustainable and safe agriculture systems in s-SA. | Peer reviewed – policy | |||
| Gaspar FW, Chevrier J, Bornman R, Crause M, Obida M, Barr DB, Bradman A, Bouwman H, Eskenazi B. | Undisturbed dust as a metric of long-term indoor insecticide exposure: Residential DDT contamination from indoor residual spraying and its association with serum levels in the VHEMBE cohort. | 2015 | Environ Int. 2015 Dec; 85:163-7. Erratum in: Environ Int. 2016 Sep; 94:778-783 | Center for Environmental Research and Children's Health (CERCH), School of Public Health, University of California at Berkeley. USA. Department of Epidemiology, Biostatistics and Occupational Health, McGill University, Montreal, QC, Canada. School of Health Systems and Public Health, University of Pretoria; Centre for Sustainable Malaria Control, University of Pretoria, SA; Department of Environmental Health, Rollins School of Public Health, Emory University, Atlanta, USA; Center for Environmental Research and Children's Health (CERCH), School of Public Health, University of California at Berkeley, USA. Research Unit: Environmental Sciences and Development, North-West University, Potchefstroom, SA. | Dichlorodiphenyl trichloroethane (DDT) is an organochlorine insecticide that is banned internationally except for use as part of Indoor Residual Spraying (IRS) programs to control malaria. Although animal studies show that DDT and its breakdown product dichlorodiphenyl dichloroethylene (DDE) affect the immune system and may cause allergies, no studies have examined this question in populations where IRS is conducted. The aim of our study was to investigate whether prenatal exposure to DDT and DDE is associated with allergy symptoms and diagnoses among South African children living in an area where IRS is conducted. To accomplish this aim, we used data from the Venda Health Examination of Mothers, Babies and their Environment (VHEMBE), an ongoing birth cohort study of 752 children born between 2012 and 2013 in the rural Vhembe district of Limpopo, SA. We measured maternal peripartum serum concentrations of DDT and DDE, and administered a questionnaire to the caregivers of 658 children aged 3.5 years to collect information on allergy symptoms and diagnoses as well as potential confounders using validated instruments. Using multiple logistic regression models, we found positive associations between DDT and DDE serum concentrations and most of the allergy symptoms and diagnoses. Maternal DDT (Odds Ratio [OR]= 1.5 per 10-fold increase, 95% Confidence interval, CI= 1.0, 2.3) and DDE (OR= 1.4, 95% CI= 0.8, 2.4) serum concentrations were most strongly associated with caregiver report of wheezing or whistling in the chest. Concentrations of DDT and/or DDE were also associated with increased odds of children’s chests sounding wheezy during or after exercise, itchy rashes coming and going for at least six months, diagnosis of food allergy, and diagnosis of dust or dust mite allergy but confidence intervals crossed the null. Results suggest that prenatal exposure to DDT, and possibly DDE, is associated with elevated odds of wheezing among children from an IRS area. | DDT DDE | Concentrations of DDT and/or DDE were most strongly associated with caregiver report of wheezing or whistling in the chest, with increased odds of children’s chests sounding wheezy during or after exercise, itchy rashes coming and going for at least six months, diagnosis of food allergy, and diagnosis of dust or dust mites allergy but confidence intervals crossed the null. Results suggest that prenatal exposure to DDT, and possibly DDE, is associated with elevated odds of wheezing among children from an IRS area. | Venda Health Examination of Mothers, Babies and their Environment (VHEMBE), an ongoing birth cohort study of 752 children born between 2012 and 2013. | Rural Vhembe district of Limpopo, SA. | Measure of maternal peripartum serum concentrations of DDT and DDE, and administered a questionnaire to the caregivers of 658 children aged 3.5 years to collect information on allergy symptoms and diagnoses as well as potential confounders using validated instruments. Using multiple logistic regression models, we found positive associations between DDT and DDE serum concentrations and most of the allergy symptoms and diagnoses. | Malaria control | Impact on maternal peripartum serum. | Residential study | Several | NA | NA | Air | This is the first study to report associations between prenatal exposure to p,p’-DDT and wheezing in children. | Further research is needed to confirm our results and to determine whether associations persist at later ages. | Peer reviewed – human harm | ||
| Glass, T, Dalvie, M A, Holtman, Z, Vorster, AA, Ramesar , RS, and London, L | DNA variants and organophosphate neurotoxicity among emerging farmers in the Western Cape of SA | 2018 | Am J Ind Med. 2018 Jan; 61(1):11-20 | School of Public Health and Family Medicine, University of Cape Town, Centre for Environmental and Occupational Health Research (CEOHR), and MRC Human Genetics Research Unit, Division of Human Genetics, Institute for Infectious Diseases and Molecular Medicine, Faculty of Health Sciences, Department of Pathology, University of Cape Town, SA. | Background: Previous epidemiological studies investigating modification of organophosphate (OP) neurotoxicity by xenobiotic metabolizing enzymes (XMEs) polymorphisms have produced inconsistent results. Methods: A cross-sectional study of 301 emerging farmers was conducted. Neurotoxicity testing included forward and backward recall, digit span, and vibration sensitivity testing. Questionnaire data included demography, potential confounders, and work history of pesticide exposures. Genomic DNA was analyzed from study participants for DNA variants of two glutathione S-transferases (GSTM1 and GSTT1), N-acetyltransferase 2 (NAT2), and Paraoxonase 1 (PON1). Results: There was evidence of OP pesticide neurotoxicity modification by rs1799931 (NAT2), rs662 (PON1), and the null allele of GSTM1 in multivariate analysis. The strongest evidence of modification was observed for rs1799931 (NAT2) on the relationship between pesticide poisoning and impaired vibration sense. Conclusions: DNA variants of NAT2, PON1, and GSTM1 may modify OP neurotoxicity, and this requires further exploration. | Organophosphates | DNA variants of NAT2, PON1, and GSTM1 may modify OP neurotoxicity. | Unspecified | A cross-sectional study of 301 emerging farmers was conducted. Neurotoxicity testing included forward and backward recall, digit span, and vibration sensitivity testing. Questionnaire data included demography, potential confounders, and work history of pesticide exposures. Genomic DNA was analyzed from study participants for DNA variants of two glutathione S-transferases (GSTM1 and GSTT1), N-acetyltransferase 2 (NAT2), and Paraoxonase 1 (PON1). | Agriculture (crop protection) | Workplace study | Route of exposure (human) | Route of exposure (environmental) | Peer reviewed – human harm | ||||||||
| Godsmark C & Rother H | Part of the solution – an engaged scholarship approach for the sustainable reduction of street pesticides and poisonings | 2019 | Global Public Health, 14:10, 1535-1545, | Division of Environmental Health, School of Public Health and Family Medicine, University of Cape Town, SA | In low-income townships, pests are rife, a nuiSouth Africance and are vectors of disease. Although alternatives are available, chemical means of pest control is often the first resort due to lack of knowledge of other methods, convenience and presumed efficacy. The demand for chemical pest control has created a unique business opportunity for informal vendors in SA servicing predominately low socio-economic communities. That is the selling of ‘street pesticides’, which are either containing agricultural pesticides too toxic for domestic use or illegally imported products. Poisonings from street pesticide exposures, particularly in children, are increasingly common and, along with pest- related diseases, creates a double burden of disease. Solutions are needed to decrease these incidences and to develop pest control strategies that are low- or non-toxic. It is imperative that, for sustainable problem-solving, all stakeholders, including vendors, be part of the solution in tackling this public health issue. This manuscript outlines an engaged scholarship approach for developing a sustainable resolution for reducing street pesticide use. This cyclical and iterative approach encompasses: the establishment of relationships, co-creation of solutions, co-implementation, co-monitoring, co-evaluation, co-reflection and co-re-design. The significance of the research and proposedIn low-income townships, pests are rife, a nuiSouth Africance and are vectors of disease. Although alternatives are available, chemical means of pest control is often the first resort due to lack of knowledge of other methods, convenience and presumed efficacy. The demand for chemical pest control has created a unique business opportunity for informal vendors in SA servicing predominately low socio-economic communities. That is the selling of ‘street pesticides’, which are either containing agricultural pesticides too toxic for domestic use or illegally imported products. Poisonings from street pesticide exposures, particularly in children, are increasingly common and, along with pest- related diseases, creates a double burden of disease. Solutions are needed to decrease these incidences and to develop pest control strategies that are low- or non-toxic. It is imperative that, for sustainable problem-solving, all stakeholders, including vendors, be part of the solution in tackling this public health issue. This manuscript outlines an engaged scholarship approach for developing a sustainable resolution for reducing street pesticide use. This cyclical and iterative approach encompasses: the establishment of relationships, co-creation of solutions, co-implementation, co-monitoring, co-evaluation, co-reflection and co-re-design. The significance of the research and proposed engagement are discussed, as are anticipated challenges. engagement are discussed, as are anticipated challenges. | Not specified | Cyclical and iterative engaged scholarship framework presented in this manuscript was illustrated through a case of informal vendors selling street pesticides. | 2018 | NA | Qualitive engagement process | Domestic use (rodent & insect control; herbicide) | NA | Market study | NA | NA | NA | NA | Whilst the study advocates for improving service delivery to low-income areas and banning of hazardous chemicals for domestic use we also seek not to undermine the economic livelihoods of informal vendors. Exploring a relationship with a group conducting illegal activities requires well thought out and tentative navigation to not disrupt the fragility of the potential engagement. | The study proposes a method of grassroots stakeholder engagement. This framework of engagement should be used for other projects for the co-construction of knowledge to develop sustainable public health solutions. Regarding the specific case presented here, whilst we advocate for improving service delivery to low-income areas and banning of hazardous chemicals for domestic use we also seek not to undermine the economic livelihoods of informal vendors. | Peer reviewed – policy | ||
| Guy, S, Webb, K, Riordan, G, & Stephen, C. | Extrapyramidal effects in a young child with acute organophosphorus insecticide poisoning, | 2025 | Clinical Toxicology, 63(2), 151–152 | Department of Paediatrics, Red Cross War Memorial Children’s Hospital, Department of Paediatrics, University of Cape Town and Department of Paediatrics, Poisons Information Center, Red Cross War Memorial Children’s Hospital and University of Cape Town, SA | NA: short medical paper about how patients with extrapyramidal features after acute organophosphorus insecticide poisoning were treated | Demeton-S-methyl sulphone, organophosphorus insecticides and cockroach killer. | Description of symptoms after ingestion and proposed remedies. biperiden, an antimuscarinic medication that blocks dopamine reuptake, reversed symptoms in our patient. Amantadine, which enhances central dopamine release, has also shown efficacy. | 2025 | Poisons Information Centre, Department of Paediatric Medicine, Red Cross War Memorial Children’s Hospital and University of Cape Town, SA. | Clincial observations | Domestic use (rodent & insect control; herbicide) | Extrapyramidal features | Residential study | Pesticide Ingestion | NA | NA | NA | NA | NA | Peer reviewed – human harm | ||
| Heeren, G H, Tyler. J, & Mandeya. A | Agricultural chemical exposures and birth defects in theEastern Cape Province, SA: A case – control study | 2003 | Environ Health 2, 11 (2003) | Department of Public Health, Cecilia Makiwane Hospital, East London; Department of Science and Statistics, University of Fort Hare, SA; & University of Pennsylvania Annenberg School of Communication Center of Health Behavior | The Eastern Cape is the second largest province in SA. There has been growing concern about the occurrence of certain birth defects which seemed to have increased in the past few years. In this paper we investigate associations between exposure to agricultural chemicals and certain birth defects. Few such studies have been undertaken in the developing world previously. Methods: Between September 2000 and March 2001, a case – control study was conducted among rural women in the area of the Eastern cape to investigate the association between women's exposure to pesticides and the occurrence of birth defects. Information on birth defects was obtained from the register of the Paediatrics Department at the Cecilia Makiwane Hospital in MdantSouth Africane, one of the largest referral hospitals in the province. The cases were children who were diagnosed with selected birth defects. The controls were children born in the same areas as the cases. Exposure information on the mothers was obtained by interview concerning from their activities in gardens and fields. Data were analysed using conditional logistic regression. Results: A total of 89 case mothers and 178 control mothers was interviewed. Babies with birth defects were seven times more likely to be born to women exposed to chemicals used in gardens and fields compared to no reported exposure (Odds Ratio 7.18, 95% CI 3.99, 13.25); and were almost twice as likely to be born to women who were involved in dipping livestock used to prevent ticks (OR 1.92, 95% CI 1.15, 3.14). They were also 6.5 times more likely to be born to women who were using plastic containers for fetching water (OR 6.5, 95% CI 2.2, 27.9). Some of these containers had previously contained pesticides (OR 1.87, 95% CI 1.06, 3.31). Conclusions: These findings suggest a link between exposure to pesticides and certain birth defects among the children of rural South African women who work on the land. Education programmes for women alerting them to the dangers to their babies from the use of pesticides and alternative farming methods and elimination of the reuse of pesticide containers are indicated as preventive measures. | Babies with birth defects were seven times more likely to be born to women exposed to chemicals used in gardens and fields compared to no reported exposure (Odds Ratio 7.18, 95% CI 3.99, 13.25); and were almost twice as likely to be born to women who were involved in dipping livestock used to prevent ticks (OR 1.92, 95% CI 1.15, 3.14). They were also 6.5 times more likely to be born to women who were using plastic containers for fetching water (OR 6.5, 95% CI 2.2, 27.9). Some of these containers had previously contained pesticides (OR 1.87, 95% CI 1.06, 3.31). These findings suggest a link between exposure to pesticides and certain birth defects among the children of rural South African women who work on the land. | September 2000 and March 2001 | Makiwane Hospital in MdantSouth Africane, Eastern Cape. | Information on birth defects was obtained from the register of the Paediatrics Department at the Cecilia Makiwane Hospital in MdantSouth Africane, one of the largest referral hospitals in the province. The cases were children who were diagnosed with selected birth defects. The controls were children born in the same areas as the cases. Exposure information on the mothers was obtained by interview concerning from their activities in gardens and fields. Data were analysed using conditional logistic regression. | Animal dipping | Birth defects | Workplace study | Dermal | Direct exposure in the field | NA | NA | There is an urgent need for an awareness campaign with regard to the use of pesticides among the many women who are not aware of the danger of using chemicals. Education efforts to introduce alternative farming methods should be encouraged, as this will reduce reliance on chemical products which are not necessary for successful cultivation. The same applies in respect of the reused plastic containers for fetching water. Access to water is a major problem in all rural areas in Africa. If water needs to be fetched from a communal tap, rain tank, river or dam, a container is needed. Poor women use any container available. A possible way of reducing the problem is to charge a deposit on the chemical containers, refundable on return. Another suggestion might be that households in rural areas should be supplied with a water container, which is safe to use for fetching and storing water. A national birth register should be established to record information on the child's date of birth, gestational age, birthweight and, in case of a defect, the ICD code. In addition, there should be information on the occupation and place of residence of both parents, if possible up to three months prior to conception, as well as other socio-economic information. | There remains a need for further studies which are broader and larger in terms of the number of women in the study and more variables to better control potential confounding. Such variables could be used in a combination of analyses of ground water and of food in order to confirm residues in food. Because the prevention of certain birth defects is possible, everything should be done to reach this goal. | Peer reviewed – human harm | |||
| Huq F, Obida M, Bornman R, Di Lenardo T, & Chevrier J | Associations between prenatal exposure to DDT and DDE and allergy symptoms and diagnoses in the Venda Health Examination of Mothers, Babies and their Environment (VHEMBE), SA | 2020 | Environ Res. 2020 Jun; 185:109366. | Department of Epidemiology, Biostatistics and Occupational Health, Faculty of Medicine, McGill University, Montréal, Canada; School of Health Systems and Public Health, and Institute for Sustainable Malaria Control, University of Pretoria, SA & Department of Epidemiology, Biostatistics and Occupational Health, Faculty of Medicine, McGill University, Montréal, Canada. | Dichlorodiphenyl trichloroethane (DDT) is an organochlorine insecticide that is banned internationally except for use as part of Indoor Residual Spraying (IRS) programs to control malaria. Although animal studies show that DDT and its breakdown product dichlorodiphenyl dichloroethylene (DDE) affect the immune system and may cause allergies, no studies have examined this question in populations where IRS is conducted. The aim of our study was to investigate whether prenatal exposure to DDT and DDE is associated with allergy symptoms and diagnoses among South African children living in an area where IRS is conducted. To accomplish this aim, we used data from the Venda Health Examination of Mothers, Babies and their Environment (VHEMBE), an ongoing birth cohort study of 752 children born between 2012 and 2013 in the rural Vhembe district of Limpopo, SA. We measured maternal peripartum serum concentrations of DDT and DDE, and administered a questionnaire to the caregivers of 658 children aged 3.5 years to collect information on allergy symptoms and diagnoses as well as potential confounders using validated instruments. Using multiple logistic regression models, we found positive associations between DDT and DDE serum concentrations and most of the allergy symptoms and diagnoses. Maternal DDT (Odds Ratio [OR]= 1.5 per 10-fold increase, 95% Confidence interval, CI= 1.0, 2.3) and DDE (OR= 1.4, 95% CI= 0.8, 2.4) serum concentrations were most strongly associated with caregiver report of wheezing or whistling in the chest. Concentrations of DDT and/or DDE were also associated with increased odds of children’s chests sounding wheezy during or after exercise, itchy rashes coming and going for at least six months, diagnosis of food allergy, and diagnosis of dust or dust mite allergy but confidence intervals crossed the null. Results suggest that prenatal exposure to DDT, and possibly DDE, is associated with elevated odds of wheezing among children from an IRS area. | DDT DDE | Results suggest that prenatal exposure to DDT, and possibly DDE, is associated with elevated odds of wheezing among children from an IRS area | 2012-2013 | Tshilidzini hospital in the town of Thohoyandou. The study used data from the Venda Health Examination of Mothers, Babies and their Environment (VHEMBE), an ongoing birth cohort study taking place in the Vhembe district of Limpopo Province, SA. | Women were enrolled in the VHEMBE study between August 2012 and December 2013 when they presented for delivery at Tshilidzini hospital in the town of Thohoyandou. Maternal blood samples were collected prior to, or shortly after, delivery. After the initial screening by study staff, 920 women were found to be eligible. Of these, 752 provided informed consent, completed a baseline questionnaire, and supplied an adequate blood sample for DDT and DDE quantification. Follow up assessments occurred one week as well as one, two and 3.5 years postpartum. Of the 667 children who were followed to age 3.5 years, 658 were accompanied by a primary caregiver who provided information about allergy symptoms and diagnoses. | Malaria control | Wheezing among children | Residential study | Several | NA | NA | NA | NA | Further research is needed to confirm our results and to determine whether associations persist at later ages. | Peer reviewed – human harm | ||
| Khan, M, Solomon F, Izu A, Bengura P, Okudo G, Maroane B, Lala N, & Dangor Z | The burden of poisoning in children hospitalised at a tertiary-level hospital in SA | 2023 | Front. Public Health, 20 October 2023 Sec. Children and Health, Vol 11 (2023) | Department of Paediatrics and Child Health, Faculty of Health Sciences, University of the Witwatersrand, Johannesburg & SA Medical Research Council: Vaccines and Infectious Diseases Analytics Unit, University of the Witwatersrand, Johannesburg, SA | Globally, childhood poisoning accounts for a significant proportion of emergency department admissions. There is a paucity of data from low- and middle-income countries on poisoning in children. Objective: To describe the incidence, case fatality rate, and types of poisoning in children admitted to a tertiary-level hospital in Johannesburg, SA. Methods: This was a retrospective descriptive study of children hospitalised with poisoning from January 2016 to December 2021 at Chris Hani Baragwanath Academic Hospital. Children were identified from a discharge summary database using ICD-10 codes that describe poisoning. Trends in incidence of poison exposure were reported. Results: Of the 60,901 admissions during the study period, 2,652 (4.4%) children were diagnosed with poisoning. Most (71.3%) children were less than 5 years of age and 55% were male. The incidence of poisoning per 100,000 was highest at 108.4 (95% CI: 104.3–112.6) in 2019 and decreased to 77.3 (95% CI: 73.9–80.7) in 2020 and 59.6 (95% CI: 56.3–62.5) in 2021. Main causes of poisoning were organic solvents (37.6%), medications (32.9%), and pesticides (17.5%). The overall case fatality rate was 2.1%. In a multivariate analysis, poisoning secondary to pesticides (aOR: 13.9; 95% CI: 4.52–60.8; p < 0.001), and unspecified agents (aOR: 12.7; 95% CI: 3.27–62.8; p < 0.001) were associated with an increased odds of death. Conclusion: We report a high prevalence of poisoning in children hospitalised in this tertiary-level hospital in SA. Public health measures to reduce the burden of organic solvents, medications and pesticide poisoning are urgently warranted. | Not specified | Retrospective descriptive study of children hospitalised with poisoning. Children were identified from a discharge summary database using ICD-10 codes that describe poisoning. | January 2016 to December 2021 | Chris Hani Baragwanath Academic Hospital | Hospital records | Domestic use (rodent control) | Main causes of poisoning were organic solvents (37.6%), medications (32.9%), and pesticides (17.5%). | Nature of study (for human harm) | Route of exposure (human) | NA | NA | NA | The high prevalence of poisoning in children hospitalised in this tertiary-level hospital in SA. Public health measures to reduce the burden of organic solvents, medications and pesticide poisoning are urgently warranted. | Peer reviewed – human harm | |||
| Kim J, Yang S, Moodie EE, Obida M, Bornman R, Eskenazi B, & Chevrier J. | Prenatal exposure to insecticides and child cardiometabolic risk factors in the VHEMBE birth cohort | 2022 | Environ Epidemiol. 2022 Feb 11; 6(2): e196 | Department of Epidemiology, Biostatistics and Occupational Health, Faculty of Medicine, McGill University, Canada; University of Pretoria Institute for Sustainable Malaria Control, School of Health Systems and Public Health, SA; and Center for Environmental Research and Children’s Health, School of Public Health, University of California, Berkeley, USA. | As part of malaria control programs, many countries spray dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane (DDT) or pyrethroid insecticides inside dwellings in a practice called indoor residual spraying that results in high levels of exposure to local populations. Gestational exposure to these endocrine- and metabolism-disrupting chemicals may influence child cardiometabolic health. Methods: We measured the serum concentration of DDT and dichlorodiphenyldichloroethylene (DDE) and urinary concentration of pyrethroid metabolites (cis-DBCA, cis-DCCA, trans-DCCA, 3-PBA) in peripartum samples collected between August 2012 and December 2013 from 637 women participating in the Venda Health Examination of Mothers, Babies and their Environment (VHEMBE), a birth cohort study based in Limpopo, SA. We applied marginal structural models to estimate the relationship between biomarker concentrations and child-size (height and weight), adiposity (body mass index [BMI], body fat percentage, waist circumference) and blood pressure at 5 years of age. Results: Maternal concentrations of all four pyrethroid metabolites were associated with lower adiposity including reduced BMI z-scores, smaller waist circumferences, and decreased body fat percentages. Reductions in BMI z-score were observed only among children of mothers with sufficient energy intake during pregnancy (βcis-DCCA, trans -DCCA=-0.4, 95% confidence interval (CI) = -0.7-0.1; p interaction=0.03 and 0.04, respectively) but there was no evidence of effect modification for the other measures of adiposity. Maternal p,p'-DDT concentrations were associated with a reduction in body fat percentage (β = -0.4%, 95% CI = -0.8-0.0). Conclusions: Gestational exposure to pyrethroids may reduce adiposity in children at 5 years of age. | DDT DDE Pyrethroids | This study finds that prenatal exposure to pyrethroids may be related to reduced adiposity in children at 5 years of age. Such depletion of fat stores may be most detrimental in nutrient-poor environments. | August 2012 and December 2013 | Limpopo, SA | The study measured the serum concentration of DDT and dichlorodiphenyldichloroethylene (DDE) and urinary concentration of pyrethroid metabolites (cis-DBCA, cis-DCCA, trans-DCCA, 3-PBA) in peripartum samples collected between August 2012 and December 2013 from 637 women participating in the Venda Health Examination of Mothers, Babies and their Environment (VHEMBE), a birth cohort study based in Limpopo, SA. We applied marginal structural models to estimate the relationship between biomarker concentrations and child-size (height and weight), adiposity (body mass index [BMI], body fat percentage, waist circumference) and blood pressure at 5 years of age. | Malaria control | Overall, maternal concentrations of all pyrethroid metabolites were associated with reduced BMI z-score, waist circumference, and body fat percentage in the children. | Residential study | Several | NA | NA | Air, water & soil | Future studies should investigate whether these associations persist later in childhood and consider evaluating elations with growth trajectories, which may better predict cardiometabolic risk. | Peer reviewed – human harm | |||
| Koorsten, BJ | Presence of glyphosate in food products in SA of which maize or soybean is the primary constituent | 2017 | Dissertation submitted in fulfilment of the requirements for the degree, Magister Medical Scientiae (Human Molecular Biology) in the Faculty of Health Sciences, Department of Haematology and Cell Biology, University of the Free State, Supervisor: Prof. CD Viljoen; Co-supervisor: Ms. S SreenivaSouth African | Faculty of Health Sciences, Department of Haematology and Cell Biology, University of the Free State, SA. | Since the commercialization of herbicide tolerant crops, independent research has generated previously unknown information regarding the application of glyphosate on these crops: glyphosate is present in the grain of herbicide tolerant crops treated with glyphosate; glyphosate is not removed from food during processing; and low concentrations of glyphosate in formulation have been found to have genotoxic effects in mammalian cells in vitro. Considering that maize is a major staple and soybean an important source of protein, the safety of glyphosate is an issue of great importance in SA. However, before any informed discussion can take place on the safety of glyphosate, we need to know the extent of its presence in the food chain in SA, since SA predominantly produces glyphosate tolerant maize and soybean. Thus, the aim of this study was to test food products in SA containing maize and/or soybean as a primary constituent for glyphosate. The food products were purchased from all major retail stores based on their ingredient list. For ethical reasons no brand names are mentioned in this dissertation, also taking into account that the controversy surrounding the safety of glyphosate remains unresolved. The literature review presents the literature regarding glyphosate, its safety assessment and its presence in HT crops, processed food as well as in animals including humans. Chapter 2 includes the research aim and methodology used. Chapter 3 includes the results and discussion for the level of glyphosate present in the maize and soybean food products. Since the data was available, it was used to determine compliance to GM labelling in terms of the Consumer Protection Act (2008) that mandates GM labelling in SA. Chapter 4 includes the results and discussion in terms of compliance with GM labelling requirements in SA. Chapter 5 includes the limitations of the study. The final chapter (Chapter 6) presents the conclusions over the presence of glyphosate in the South African food chain as well as compliance to mandatory GM labelling. Following chapter 6 there is a summary of the dissertation. | Glyphosate | In SA, maize (in the form of maize meal) is a major staple and soybean an important source of protein. The majority of GM maize (68%) and soybean (100%) grown in SA is HT (James, 2015). It is currently not known to what extent glyphosate may be present in the SA food chain, specifically regarding maize and soybean containing food products. | Unspecified | SA, with extensive literature review focusing on other countries. | Litterature reviews | Agriculture (crop protection) | NA | NA | Several | Residues (in crops) | NA | NA | Considering the potential uncertainty regarding the safety of glyphosate, it is important to clarify the extent of the presence of glyphosate in SA food products. | Report/working paper/book – human harm | |||
| Kootbodien, T, Holtman, Z, Asmal, L, Joska, J, Chiliza, B, Smith, P, & London, L. | Organophosphate pesticide exposure as a risk factor for attempted suicide in Cape Town, SA: A case-control study. | 2021 | Archives of Environmental & Occupational Health, 77(10): 789–799 | HIV Mental Health Research Unit, Department of Psychiatry and Mental Health, and Division of Pharmacology, University of Cape Town, SA. | Pesticides are a commonly used agent for suicide in many Low- and Middle-Income countries (LMICs). However, accumulating evidence suggests that exposure to organophosphate (OP) pesticide may also increase the risk of suicide. We conducted a hospital-based case-control study to investigate whether prior household, garden or occupational OP exposure were associated with attempted suicide using conditional logistic regression modeling. Participants who attempted suicide with any means and were admitted to two Western Cape Province hospitals in SA were compared to a sample of controls matched by age, sex and time of admission with unrelated conditions, between August 2015 and August 2017. The means of attempted suicide was not recorded. OP exposure was determined by dialkyl phosphate (DAP) metabolites detected in hair and by environmental and occupational history. Approximately 85% of participants reported using pesticides in the home or garden and 15% of participants reported current or past occupational exposure while working on a farm. Attempted suicide was not associated with reported home or garden OP use (Odds ratio [OR] = 0.59, 95%CI 0.33–1.04), hair DAP metabolites (OR = 1.00, 95%CI 0.98–1.02) or current or past agricultural work (OR = 1.08, 95%CI 0.62–1.87), but was associated with hazardous drinking and unemployment with no household income. We found no evidence that attempted suicide was associated with environmental or occupational pesticide use in an urban South African population attending an emergency center. | Dialkyl phosphates | Negative evidence: Note this paper presents no evidence of correlation that attempted suicide was associated with environmental or occupational pesticide use in an urban SA population attending an emergency center. Attempted suicide was not associated with reported home or garden OP use (Odds ratio [OR] = 0.59, 95%CI 0.33–1.04), hair DAP metabolites (OR = 1.00, 95%CI 0.98–1.02) or current or past agricultural work (OR = 1.08, 95%CI 0.62–1.87), but was associated with hazardous drinking and unemployment with no household income. | August 2015 to August 2017 | 2 Western cape provincial hospitals | Hospital-based case-control study. OP exposure was determined by dialkyl phosphate (DAP) metabolites detected in hair and by environmental and occupational history. | Domestice use (gardening) | Risk of suicide | Residential study | Oral | Direct exposure in the field | NA | NA | Peer reviewed – human harm | ||||
| Lagrange-Mentz. S & Dabrowski, J. | Pesticide spray drift in SA: calling for agrochemical reform to protect our people and our environment | 2020 | SA Organic Sector Organisation (SAOSO) and GMO Poison Free Zones, SA | Action 24 implementing organisations | This paper documents three cases of pesticide drift contamination linked to the cultivation of table grapes, strawberries and blueberries in the Western Cape, and how these affect rural communities. These stories are a small drop in the ocean of spray drift issues plaguing the country. They all give a sense of the disempowerment and hopelessness felt by these local communities, who are virtually left with no recourse. This paper shows how other countries have gone about mandating compulsory buffer zones to preserve people‘s health and the environment, especially water bodies. These approaches are not ideal, with buffer distances often being judged as insufficient by civil society, but they are a start. The applicability of the Spray Drift Risk Assessment Tool (SDRAT) to determine the ideal dimension for buffer zones in SA is described. The paper also discusses the manner in which the current South African legislation, notably the Pest Management Act, the National Water Act and the Air Quality Act could serve as leverage points to start legislating on buffer zones. | Herbicides Fungicides | The paper illustrates the extent of pesticide drift in SA through three cases of pesticide drift contamination linked to the cultivation of table grapes, strawberries and blueberries in the Western Cape, and how these affect rural communities. | 2019-2020 | Literature review and case studies from the Western Cape | Communities affected by spray drift | Agriculture (crop protection) | Three case studies of communities suffering the effects of intense spray drift | Residential study | Inhalation | Spray drift | Three case studies of farm areas suffering the effects of intense spray drift in the Western Cape are documented. The spray drift suffered is told from the vantage point of people living or spending time right next to the chemical farms being sprayed. | Air, water & soil | Government needs to take specific measures to curb this spraying drift issue include: minimizing or prohibiting pesticide use in specific areas, mandating buffer zones to protect non-target rural communities, and safeguard zones where surface and groundwater is used for the abstraction of drinking water. | The study offers Buffer zone best practice guidelines. | Report/working paper/book – policy | ||
| Laher, AE, Motara, F, Gihwala, R & Moolla, M. | The profile of patients presenting with intentional self-poisoning to the Charlotte Maxeke Johannesburg Academic Hospital emergency department, SA | 2022 | S Afr Med J 2022 Apr 29;112(5):347-351. | Department of Emergency Medicine, Faculty of Health Sciences, University of the Witwatersrand, Johannesburg, SA | Background: With 23.5 suicide-related deaths per 100 000 population, SA has the eighth-highest age-standardised suicide rate in the world. Intentional self-poisoning is associated with significant morbidity, mortality and cost. In SA, self-poisoning is the leading method of suicide in females and the second leading method in males. Objectives: To determine the profile of patients presenting with intentional self-poisoning to the Charlotte Maxeke Johannesburg Academic Hospital emergency department. Methods: The study was a cross-sectional, retrospective audit of the medical records of patients who presented over a 12-month period with intentional self-poisoning. Results: Of the 288 patients included, 62.8% were female, 62.1% were aged 18-30 years, 22.2% were foreign nationals, 88.9% were single, 62.8% were unemployed, 82.3% reported that the episode was precipitated by an acute stressful event, 5.6% required intensive care unit (ICU) admission, and 4.5% died prior to hospital discharge. Organophosphate/carbamate pesticide ingestion was the most common method of self-poisoning (25.3%) and was responsible for the majority of ICU admissions (81.3%), cases requiring hospitalisation for >6 days (56.5%) and deaths (69.2%). Conclusion: A large proportion of patients were female, 18-30 years of age, single, unemployed, and reported an acute stressful event as a precipitant. Organophosphate/carbamate pesticide ingestion was the most common method of self-poisoning and accounted for the majority of deaths and ICU admissions. Nationwide efforts should be aimed at enhancing awareness and implementing strategies to identify those at increased risk of suicidal behaviour. | Organophosphates Carbamates | Organophosphate/carbamate pesticide ingestion was the most common method of self-poisoning (25.3%) and was responsible for the majority of ICU admissions (81.3%), cases requiring hospitalisation for >6 days (56.5%) and deaths (69.2%). | 12-month period | Charlotte Maxeke Johannesburg Academic Hospital emergency department | Cross-sectional, retrospective audit of the medical records of patients who presented over a 12-month period with intentional self-poisoning. | NA | Self harm | Residential study | Pesticide ingestion | NA | NA | NA | Nationwide efforts should be aimed at enhancing awareness and implementing strategies to identify those at increased risk of suicidal behaviour. | Peer reviewed – human harm | |||
| London L, Beseler C, Bouchard M et al. | Neurobehavioural and neurodevelopmental effects of pesticide exposures | 2012 | Neurotoxicology. 2012 August, 33(4): 887–896 | Centre for Occupational and Environmetal Health Research, School of Public Health and Family Medicine, University of Cape Town, SA; Psychology Department, Colorado State University, Fort Collins, USA; Département de South Africanté environnementale et au travail, Université de Montréal, Canada; Departments of Neurology and Environmental Health, Harvard Medical School, Boston Children's Hospital; Department of Occupational and Environmental Health, Università degli Studi di Milano, Italy; International Centre for Rural Health (ICRH), South African Paolo Hospital, Milano, Italy; Department of Environmental Health, Harvard School of Public Health, Boston, United States; Department of Environmental Medicine, University of Southern Denmark, Odense, Denmark; Corporación para el Desarrollo de la Producción y el Medio Ambiente Laboral, Quito, Ecuador; Institute for Risk Assessment Sciences, Utrecht University, The Netherlands; Department of Statistical Sciences, University of Cape Town, SA; TNO, Department of Quality and Safety, Zeist, The Netherlands; International Centre for Pesticides and Health Risk Prevention (ICPS), Luigi Sacco Hospital, Milano, Italy; `& Center for Research on Occupational and Environmental Toxicology, Oregon Health and Science University, Portland, USA. | The association between pesticide exposure and neurobehavioral and neurodevelopmental effects is an area of increasing concern. This symposium brought together participants to explore the neurotoxic effects of pesticides across the lifespan. Endpoints examined included neurobehavioral, affective and neurodevelopmental outcomes amongst occupational (both adolescent and adult workers) and non-occupational populations (children). The symposium discussion highlighted many challenges for researchers concerned with the prevention of neurotoxic illness due to pesticides and generated a number of directions for further research and policy interventions for the protection of human health, highlighting the importance of examining potential long-term effects across the lifespan arising from early adolescent, childhood or pre-natal exposure. | Organophosphates | Analysis of data from a cross-sectional study involving 817 adult farm workers recruited using single stage cluster sampling from 57 commercial grape farms in the Western Cape province of SA, principally to explore possible causal pathways between organophosphate exposure and depression, impulsivity, suicide ideation and eventually suicide. | 2002 | Farms in the Western cape | Analysis of data from a cross-sectional study involving 817 adult farm workers recruited using single stage cluster sampling from 57 commercial grape farms in the Western Cape province of SA. | Agriculture (crop protection) | Long-term nervous system sequelae of cumulative low-dose exposures. Causal pathways between organophosphate exposure and depression, impulsivity, suicide ideation and eventually suicide. | Workplace study | Several | NA | NA | NA | The study highlights the importance of examining potential long-term effects across the lifespan arising from early adolescent, childhood or pre-natal exposure. | Peer reviewed – human harm | |||
| London L, Dalvie M, Nowicki, A & Cairncross E. | Approaches for regulating water in SA for the presence of pesticides | 2005 | Water SA, Vol 31. No. 1, July 2005 | SA Water Research Commission (WRC), a grant from the SA Medical Research Council | The public health significance of pesticide pollution of water sources in SA has received little attention from policy-makers and regulators, unlike microbiological quality of potable water. This anomaly is reflected in the current legislation in SA which is marked by inadequate regulatory standards for pesticides in water. Due to high costs, technical constraints and shortage of laboratory skills for pesticide analyses in SA, the poor regulatory framework has no monitoring data on which to base policy. In contrast, international experience in setting standards for maximum permissible levels of pesticides in water is extensive. The different approaches used by the World Health Organisation, the United States Environmental Protection Agency and the European Union are outlined, as well as the assumptions underlying these different approaches. Drawing on these models, recommendations are made as to how to integrate concerns for pesticide safety in environmental regulation and risk assessment in SA. Such measures would ensure consistency with recent developments in environmental management in SA that give primacy to a number of key environmental policy principles. A public health perspective should ensure that growing international concerns for long- term adverse health and environmental impacts arising from the presence of pesticides in water are adequately addressed in regulatory controls in SA. | Summary table of international standards for pesticides in drinking water; many HHPs listed as per international standards in drinking water | Highlighting pure absense of any regulatory framework by government for pesticides in water, while acknowleding international standards in use. | NA | SA regulatory context | Regulations and international standards | NA | Public health concern | NA | Pesticide Ingestion | Runoff post agric. application | Contaminaiton of water system | Fresh water | The current legislation in SA is marked by inadequate regulatory standards for pesticides in water. The poor regulatory framework has no monitoring data on which to base policy. Consideration should be given to developing and adopting health-based standards for pesticides in drinking water on which to base protective measures. The WHO and EPA standards could easily be used as a starting point | The study includes a summary tables of international standards for pesticides in drinking water listing pesticides. | Peer reviewed – policy | ||
| London L, Jørs E, & Neupane D | Pesticide poisoning: A response to Eddleston | 2019 | Letter to editor - Environmental Health Insights Volume 13: 1–2 | University of Cape Town, School of Public Health and Family Medicine, Cape Town, SA. University of Southern Denmark, Department of Clinical Research. Clinic of Occupational Medicine, Odense University Hospital, Odense, Denmark. 4Department of Epidemiology, Johns Hopkins Bloomberg School of Public Health, Baltimore, MD, USA. 5Nepal Development Society, Bharatpur-10, Chitwan, Nepal. | Response letter | General, HHPs | A global systematic review, suggests that banning highly hazardous pesticides, which are commonly ingested in acts of self-poisoning, can lower the number of fatal self-harm cases. Similarly, farming with reduced use of pesticides (integrated pesticide management [IPM]), can lower the number symptoms of occupational pesticide poisonings. | NA | SA regulatory context | Literature review | NA | Self-poisoning | NA | Pesticide Ingestion | NA | NA | NA | Preventive measures should then combine multiple approaches for which there is evidence of effectiveness, and we need a hybrid approach advocating for removing highly hazardous pesticides from poor rural communities | Peer reviewed – human harm | |||
| London, L. | Chemical Remedies": Expert opinion an analysis on chemical remedies and their regulation in SA | 2019 | Opinion piece provided in support of the legal letter sent to SA Minister by Fluxman Attorneys on behlaf of the Real Thing. | University of Cape Town, School of Public Health and Family Medicine, Cape Town, SA. | No abstract. The expert opinion was prepared in response to a request by Fluxmans Attorneys. The report relates to chemical remedies (whether used domestically or agriculturally) and their regulation. London was requested to provide his analysis and opinion, in respect of the following: a) Known and possible risks of chemical remedies to health including environmental health risks; b) SA’s compliance with its international obligations; c) The impact of fragmentation and absence of co-ordination within the chemical remedies regulatory system; d) International good practices in respect of various features of chemical remedies regulations; e) Known institutional challenges in the regulation of chemical remedies in SA f) Product stewardship and monitoring f chemical remedies; g) Regulation of reduced risk remedies; h) Public disclosure of information about risk; i) Labelling; j) Public education and awareness. | 2,4,5-T 2,4-D Atrazine Chlorpyrifos Chlorimuron-ethyl Diazinon Dichlorvos Dimethoate Endosulfan Ethylene dibromide Fenamifos Fipronil Methamidophos Glyphosate Malathion Parathion Pentachlorophenol Phorate S-ethyl-dipropyl thiocarbamate Ipriodione Carbaryl Tributyltin | Pesticides still registered for use in SA and which for which there is strong or very strong evidence of carcinogenic risk include: atrazine,glyphosate, malathion, diazinon, ethylene dibromide. The following pesticides still legally in use as endocrine disruptors: endosulfan, carbaryl, mancozeb, methamidophos, parathion, atrazine, 2,4-D, fipronil and ipriodione. Mancozeb is a pestidie still legally registered that present strong immunological risks. Paraquat, glyphostate, deltamethrin also present high renal risks. Registered pesticides associated with respiratory effects (risk of asthma) include: paraquat, S-ethyl-dipopylthiocarbamate (EPTC), atrazine, parathion, malathion, dichlorvos, phorate, chlorpyrifos, chlorimuron-ethyl. Obesogenic pesticides still regiistered include: atrazin, 2,4,D,2,4,5T, DDT, tributyltin. Dermatological risks: 2,4,D,2,4,5T neurological disorders (e.g Parkinsons and Alzheimer): chlorpyrifos, dimethoate, fenamifos, methamidophos | NA | SA regulatory context & health and environmental health risks of pesticides. | Literature review | Agriculture (crop protection) | Carcinogenicity, endocrine disruption, respiratory effects (risk of asthma), renal risk, obesity, neurological disorders (e.g. Parkinsons and Alzheimer), cognitive imparment. | NA | NA | NA | Specific recommendations are given in terms of all the questions that prof London was asked to investigate. | ||||||
| London L, Nell V, Thompson M, & Myers J. | Effects of long-term organophosphate exposures on neurological symptoms, vibration sense and tremor among South African farm workers | 2004 | Sc and J Work Environ Health 1998;24(1):18-29 | International Development Research Centre (IDRC - Canada); SA Medical Research Council & Guy Elliot Research Fellowship in the Department of Medicine at the University of Cape Town. | Objectives This study assessed the relationship between long-term exposure to organophosphate insecticides and neurological symptoms, vibration sense, and motor tremor after control for the effect of past poisoning and acute exposure. Methods: This cross-sectional study included 164 pesticide applicators and 83 nonspraying reference workers on deciduous fruit farms. The workers were tested on the Vibratron 11, on tests of dynamic and static tremor, and for a set of neurological and "dummy" symptoms. Exposure was derived with the use of a job-exposure matrix for pesticides in agriculture. Results: Compared with nonapplicators, cument applicators reported significantly more dizziness, sleepiness, and headache and had a higher overall neurological symptom score. This association remained statistically significant after multiple logistic regression analyses controlling for a range of confounders and effect modifiers [odds ratio (OR) 2.25, for current applicators having high neurological score, 95% confidence interval (95% CI) 1.15-4.391.] The average lifetime intensity of organophosphate exposure was non-significantly associated with both neurological (OR 1.98, 95% CI 0.49-7.94) and "dummy" symptoms (OR 2.37, 95% CI 0.54-10.35). Previous pesticide poisoning was significantly associated with the neurological scores (OR 4.08,95% CI 1.48-1 1.22) but not with the "dummy" symptoms. Vibration sense outcomes were associated with age and height, but not with the organophosphate exposure measures. In the multiple linear regression modeling for tremor intensity in the dominant hand, recent organophosphate exposure in the past 10 days was a significant predictor (partial correlation coefficient = 0.04), but none of the long-term organophosphate exposure measures were significant. Strong evidence was found for an association between symptom outcomes and past organophosphate poisoning and between symptom outcomes and current spray activity. In contrast to symptoms, there was no association between either past poisoning or current spray activity and vibration sense or tremor outcome. Long-term organophosphate exposure did not appear to predict symptoms, vibration sense, or tremor outcome. | Organophosphate, insecticides | Strong evidence was found for an association between symptom outcomes and past organophosphate poisoning and between symptom outcomes and current spray activity. | January - March 1993 | Western Cape Province of SA. | This cross-sectional study included 164 pesticide applicators and 83 nonspraying reference workers on deciduous fruit farms. The workers were tested on the Vibratron 11, on tests of dynamic and static tremor, and for a set of neurological and "dummy" symptoms. | Pesticide usage | Dizziness, sleepiness, and headache had a higher overall neurological symptom score. | Workplace study | Inhalation | Direct exposure in the field | NA | NA | NA | NA | Peer reviewed – human harm | ||
| London, L. | The right to enjoy the benefits of scientific progress for small farmers facing pesticides hazards | 2018 | Chapter published in Book Environmental Health Risks, 1st Edition, Routledge; Zölzer F & Meskens, G (Eds.) | Occupational and Environmental Health Research Unit, School of Public Health and Family Medicine University of Cape Town | This chapter outlines a case study of a farmer in northern KwaZulu-Natal to illustrate the challenges posed to human health and the environment, and what a programme to realise the Right to Enjoy the Benefits of Scientific Progress (REBSP) might mean for reducing farmer vulnerability. The REBSP offers researchers, activists, policy-makers and civil society, novel opportunities to protect the health of small farmers exposed to pesticides in developing countries. For small farmers facing persistent pest problems, scientific solutions more suited to small farmers' needs might focus on novel non-toxic methods of pest control that do not rely on toxic chemicals. The use of pesticides continues to pose significant health and environmental hazards, despite scientific and technological advances in agricultural and industrial processes. A state which mandates the use of hazardous pesticides as a condition for the receipt of agricultural outreach services, or as part of land restitution, would be breaching its obligation to respect people's human rights. | NA | Policy paper offering a critic of agricultural policies in SA, where the use of hazardous pesticides are mandated as a condition for the receipt of agricultural outreach services, or as part of land restitution, which is a breach to its obligation to respect people's human rights. | NA | SA | Policy paper | Agriculture (crop protection) | NA | Workplace study | Several | Direct exposure in the field | NA | NA | A state which mandates the use of hazardous pesticides as a condition for the receipt of agricultural outreach services, or as part of land restitution, would be breaching its obligation to respect people's human rights. | Report/working paper/book – policy | |||
| London, L, Bourne,D, Sayed, R, & Eastman, R. | Guillain-Barre Syndrome in a Rural Farming District in SA: A Possible Relationship to Environmental Organophosphate Exposure | 1999 | Archives of Environmental Health: An International Journal, Vol 59, 2004: Issue 11 | Occupational and Environmental Health Research Unit, School of Public Health and Family Medicine, University of Cape Town. | Although organophosphate (OP) insecticides have been recognized as having neuropathic potential, a relationship with Guillain-Barre syndrome (GBS) has not been previously confirmed. A cluster of 7 cases of GBS was noted over an 11-yr period in an isolated farming region in the Northern Cape Province of SA, an area subject to intensive aerial application of OP insecticides. Observed cases were more than 4 times higher than expected based on a Poison probability distribution. Four cases were clustered in an area where the topography showed a marked hollow, and where spray drift of aerial OP insecticides was anticipated. The rate of GBS in this subcluster was more than 14 times higher than expected. The authors explored the hypothesis that aerial OP insecticide application was related to the raised incidence of GBS in this area and made suggestions for future research. | NA | Observed cases of Guillain-Barre Syndrome were more than 4 times higher than expected based on a Poison probability distribution. | NA | Isolated farming region in the Northern Cape Province of SA | Medical observations | Agriculture (crop protection) | Exposure to orghanosphasphate via spraydrift after aerial application. | Residential study | Inhalation | Air | Peer reviewed – human harm | ||||||
| London, L. & Rother, A. | People, Pesticides, and the Environment: Who Bears the Brunt of Backward Policy in SA? | 2001 | New Solutions: A Journal of Environmental and Occupational Health Policy. Vol 10, Issue 4: 339 - 350 | Occupational and Environmental Health Research Unit, School of Public Health and Family Medicine, University of Cape Town. | Whereas international trends show that many developed countries are adopting policies that promote pesticide reduction, use of pesticides in SA continues to expand. In particular, macroeconomic policies encourage pesticides use among emergent small-scale black farmers, while potential exposures of workers on commercial farms remain high. Despite having legal controls that seem to conform to international standards, the present health and environmental impacts of pesticide use in SA are substantial and generally underestimated. The reasons lie in the fragmentation of regulatory mechanisms as well as the absence of public awareness and participation in policy-making related to pesticides. Failure to enforce existing legislation, an ambivalent relationship between government and industry, and the existence of a “pesticide culture” will continue to prevent implementation of meaningful control measures. As a result, it is marginalized groups, such as small-scale farmers and farm workers, who bear the brunt of policies that have not kept pace with a growing international awareness of the hazards of widespread pesticide use for human health and for the environment. Opportunities for fundamental transformation of the legal and policy framework relating to pesticides in order to promote environmental justice are explored. | NA | Policy paper exploring regulatory failtures. | NA | NA | NA | NA | NA | NA | NA | NA | NA | NA | Shift to Integrated Pest Management policy appraoch. the institutions that control pesticide registration need restructuring in a number of ways. Greater transparency in decision-making and in providing information on which decisions are made will help to change the present culture. Policies need to ensure that the full costs of pesticide use to society are borne in such a way as to avoid the externalization of costs as presently occurs. | Peer reviewed – policy | |||
| Machete M, & Shadung J. | Detection of selected agricultural pesticides in river and tap water in Letsitele, Lomati and Vals–Renoster catchments, SA | 2019 | Water SA Vol. 45 No. 4 | Water Research Commission (Report No. 1956/1/15), Council for Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR) | This paper presents the levels of detection of selected agricultural pesticides in river and tap water in the Letsitele, Lomati and Vals–Renoster catchments, SA. Agriculture plays a major role in the development of communities through job creation and poverty eradication. However, exposure to agricultural pesticides can result in serious human health and environmental effects. This study, therefore, identified critical areas where specific pesticides might result in high environmental and human health risks. Three water catchment areas, namely, Letsitele, Lomati and Vals–Renoster, were identified for raw and tap water analysis. The results confirmed the presence of selected agricultural pesticides: atrazine, terbuthylazine, imidacloprid, metolachlor, simazine and alachlor. Although low concentrations of most of these pesticides were detected, pesticides such as atrazine, alachlor and simazine are known for endocrine disruption. A critical finding of this study is the detection of these pesticides in tap water (drinking water) of a primary school in the Lomati catchment. This reveals a high exposure potential for human health. It is thus recommended that further research be conducted to determine the potential health risks associated with these pesticides among vulnerable communities, through epidemiological studies. | Atrazine Terbuthylazine Imidacloprid Metolachlor Simazine Alachlor | The results confirmed the presence of selected agricultural pesticides: atrazine, terbuthylazine, imidacloprid, metolachlor, simazine and alachlor. Although low concentrations of most of these pesticides were detected, pesticides such as atrazine, alachlor and simazine are known for endocrine disruption. A critical finding of this study is the detection of these pesticides in tap water (drinking water) of a primary school in the Lomati catchment. This reveals a high exposure potential for human health. | 2011, 2012 | Three water catchment areas; namely, Letsitele, Lomati and Vals–Renoster. | Raw and tap water analysis found EDC pesticide contamination. | Pesticide usage | Atrazine can cause liver, kidney and heart damage in animals, and could possibly cause cancer in humans. Maternal exposure to atrazine has been associated with low birth weights, heart, urinary and limb defects in humans. Atrazine exposure can lead to adverse reproductive effects in animals and humans, even at low levels of exposure. When exposure coincides with the development of the brain and reproductive organs, the effects may be even more severe. | Residential study | Pesticide ingestion | Runoff post agric. application | Hermaphroditism and the presence of eggs in male frog testes. | Fresh water | The study reveals a high exposure potential for human health. | It is recommended that further research be conducted to determine the potential health risks associated with these pesticides among vulnerable communities, through epidemiological studies. | Peer reviewed – environmental harm | ||
| Mahomed S, Voyi KVV, Aneck-Hahn NH, & De Jager C. | Oestrogenicity and chemical target analysis of water from small-sized industries in Pretoria, SA | 2008 | Water SA Vol. 34 No. 3 July 2008 | School of Health Systems and Public Health & Department of Urology, University of Pretoria, SA. | Increasing concern about endocrine disrupting chemicals (EDCs) and their effects on humans, animals and the environment resulted in this study being conducted. Water from 7 sites in the Pretoria West area (SA), with significant numbers of small-sized industries, was screened for oestrogenicity, using the Recombinant Yeast Cell Bioassay (RCBA). Target chemical analyses were carried out to establish the presence of EDCs, including p-nonylphenol (p-NP), bisphenol A (BPA), phthalate esters, polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) and various organochlorine pesticides, including dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane (DDT). p-NP, PCBs and organochlorine pesticides were detected using LECO Pegasus II MSTOF and BPA and phthalates were detected using the GC-MS method. Oestrogenic activity was detected in all the samples collected from these sites. Lindane, an organochlorine pesticide, was detected at one site. p-NP, PCBs and phthalate esters were detected at some of the other sites. Small-size industries were found to contribute to EDC pollution of water in the Pretoria West area. | Atrazine DDT Lindane Terbuthylazine | Endocrine disrupting chemicals (EDCs) and their effects on humans, animals and the environment resulted in this study being conducted. Water from 7 sites in the Pretoria West area (SA) were found to have been polluted by small-size industries. Detected chemicals include (DDT). p-NP, PCBs, organochlorine pesticides (Lindane). Of great concern is the potential for atrazine to act synergistically with other pesticides to increase their toxic effects. Note extract from interview in the Conversation, not cited in paper "The probability of developing cancer from eating the fish contaminated by DDT from Lenasia was the highest. We found that 251 out of 10 000 people may develop cancer if exposed to the mid-range level of the pesticide and 1 105 out of 10 000 people may develop cancer from the high range. At Fleurhof the risk ranged from 172 to 359 in 10 000 and at Orlando Dam from 191 to 624 in 10 000 people." Source: https://theconversation.com/cancer-causing-toxicants-found-in-a-tributary-of-south-africas-second-largest-river-103625 | Unspecified | Pretoria West | This was a descriptive study and was carried out in two phases. Phase 1 involved the identification of the different types of industries and the use of industrial detergents and other cleaning agents in the various processes by using a questionnaire. Phase 2 involved water sampling and chemical analysis. The study area is approximately 2.6 km x 1.8 km, and is situated south of Church Street, west of DF Malan Street, east of Buitekant Street, and north of the railway line. This area was specifically demarcated as it comprises the greatest number of small-sized industries in the Pretoria West area. | Pesticide usage | Endocrine disruption: abnormalities in male reproductive health, immunological effects and neurodevelopment impacts. | Residential study | Route of exposure (human) | NA | NA | Fresh water | At present there are no acceptable guideline values for the majority of EDCs tested. A dose-response relationship, particularly for extremely low exposure levels typical of environmental exposures, is difficult to establish. | Study flags a project underway that will consider updating and expanding the SA water quality guidelines and that may include EDCs, more specifically for water. | Peer reviewed – environmental harm | ||
| Marcu D, Keyser S, Petrik L, Fuhrimann S, & Maree L. | Contaminants of Emerging Concern (CECs) and Male Reproductive Health: Challenging the Future with a Double-Edged Sword | 2023 | Toxics 2023, 11: 330. | School of Biological Sciences, University of East Anglia, UK; Comparative Spermatology Laboratory, Department of Medical Bioscience, University of the Western Cape; Environmental and Nano Sciences Group, Department of Chemistry, University of the Western Cape, SA; & Department of Epidemiology and Public Health, Swiss Tropical and Public Health Institute, Switzerland. | Approximately 9% of couples are infertile, with half of these cases relating to male factors. While many cases of male infertility are associated with genetic and lifestyle factors, approximately 30% of cases are still idiopathic. Contaminants of emerging concern (CECs) denote substances identified in the environment for the first time or detected at low concentrations during water quality analysis. Since CEC production and use have increased in recent decades, CECs are now ubiquitous in surface and groundwater. CECs are increasingly observed in human tissues, and parallel reports indicate that semen quality is continuously declining, supporting the notion that CECs may play a role in infertility. This narrative review focuses on several CECs (including pesticides and pharmaceuticals) detected in the nearshore marine environment of False Bay, Cape Town, South Africa, and deliberates their potential effects on male fertility and the offspring of exposed parents, as well as the use of spermatozoa in toxicological studies. Collective findings report that chronic in vivo exposure to pesticides, including atrazine, simazine, and chlorpyrifos, is likely to be detrimental to the reproduction of many organisms, as well as to sperm performance in vitro. Similarly, exposure to pharmaceuticals such as diclofenac and naproxen impairs sperm motility both in vivo and in vitro. These contaminants are also likely to play a key role in health and disease in offspring sired by parents exposed to CECs. On the other side of the double-edged sword, we propose that due to its sensitivity to environmental conditions, spermatozoa could be used as a bioindicator in eco- and repro-toxicology studies. | Chlorpyrifos Simazine Atrazine Lindane DDT p-Nonylphenol Classes: Polychlorinated biphenyls Organochlorines Phthalates Organophosphates Pyrethroids Triazines Azoles Carbamates Bisphenol A | Contaminants of emerging concern (CECs) denote substances identified in the environment for the first time or detected at low concentrations during water quality analysis. Collective findings report that chronic in vivo exposure to pesticides, including atrazine, simazine, and chlorpyrifos, is likely to be detrimental to the reproduction of many organisms, as well as to sperm performance in vitro. These contaminants are also likely to play a key role in health and disease in offspring sired by parents exposed to CECs. | Narrative review | Nearshore marine environment of False Bay, Cape Town, SA | Narrative review focused on several CECs (including pesticides and pharmaceuticals) | Waste water contamination | Endocrine disruption - exposure to CECs such as atrazine, chlorpyrifos, simazine, diclofenac, naproxen, and sulfamethoxazole are detrimental to the reproduction of many organisms, as well as to sperm performance in vitro. | Residential study | NA | NA | Release of contaminants in water systems | Sea water | NA | Although CECs have a wide range of negative effects on the male reproductive system, this could be seen as an advantage for the potential use of spermatozoa as a bioindicator of toxic environments for a vast range of contaminants – a double-edged sword for addressing CECs in future studies. Having a comprehensive understanding of the effects of CECs on the functional characteristics of human spermatozoa can also aid in identifying idiopathic fertility cases and may lead to the development of more individualized treatment plans for patients undergoing ART. Furthermore, identifying the concentrations or combined mixtures at which these compounds may cause reproductive toxicity can assist in the development of legislative measures that monitor and regulate CECs. | Peer reviewed – human harm | ||
| Molomo RN, Basera W, Chetty-Mhlanga S, Fuhrimann S, Mugari M, Wiesner L, Röösli M, & Dalvie MA. | Relation between organophosphate pesticide metabolite concentrations with pesticide exposures, socio-economic factors and lifestyles: A cross-sectional study among school boys in the rural Western Cape, SA | 2021 | Environmental Pollution, Vol. 275, 2021, 116660 | Centre for Environment and Occupational Health Research, School of Public Health and Family Medicine, Faculty of Health Sciences, University of Cape Town; Hair and Skin Research Laboratory, University of Cape Town and Groote Schuur Hospital, Cape Town; Division of Clinical Pharmacology, Department of Medicine, University of Cape Town, SA; & University of Basel, Switzerland, Institute for Risk Assessment Sciences (IRAS), Utrecht University, The Netherlands. | Evidence on the relationship between lifestyle, socio-economic factors and pesticide exposure and urinary concentrations of organophosphate (OP) pesticide metabolites among children is generally incomplete. This study investigated the relationship between socio-economic factors and reported pesticide exposures and the sum of three urinary concentrations of dialkyl phosphate metabolites (DAP) among boys living in the rural areas of the Western Cape, SA. Data was collected during a cross-sectional study of 183 boys from three agricultural intense areas. Measurements included a questionnaire on socio-economic and pesticide exposures and urinary DAP concentrations. Most boys (70%) lived on farms with a median age of 12 years (range: 5.0–19.5 years). Children aged >14 years had lower DAP urine concentrations (median = 39.9 ng/ml; β = −68.1 ng/ml; 95% CI: −136.8, 0.6) than children aged 9 years and younger (median = 107.0 ng/ml). DAP concentrations also varied significantly with area, with concentrations in the grape farming area, Hex River Valley (median = 61.8 ng/ml; β = −52.1; 95% CI: −97.9, −6.3 ng/ml) and the wheat farming area, Piketberg (median = 72.4 ng/ml; β = −54.2; 95% CI: 98.8, −9.7 ng/ml) lower than those in the pome farming area, Grabouw (median = 79.9 ng/ml). Other weaker and non-significant associations with increased DAP levels were found with increased household income, member of household working with pesticides, living on a farm, drinking water from an open water source and eating crops from the vineyard and or garden. The study found younger age and living in and around apple and grape farms to be associated with increased urinary DAP concentrations. Additionally, there were other pesticide exposures and socio-economic and lifestyle factors that were weakly associated with elevated urinary DAP levels requiring further study. The study provided more evidence on factors associated to urinary DAP concentrations especially in developing country settings. | Dialkyl phosphates | Three DAP urinary metabolites (DEP, DMP and DMTP) were detected in majority of the urine samples . All three metabolites were detected in 90% of the samples. Dimethyl thiophosphate (DMTP) was the most detected metabolite, followed by DMP. The study found younger age and living in and around apple and grape farms to be associated with increased urinary dialkyl phosphate metabolites (DAP) concentrations. Additionally, there were other pesticide exposures and socio-economic and lifestyle factors that were weakly associated with elevated urinary DAP levels requiring further study. | April 2007 to March 2008 | Three agricultural intensive areas in Western Cape, SA. | This was an analysis of data collected during a cross-sectional study of 183 boys. | Agriculture (crop protection) | Exposure to drift and residues. | Workplace study | Pesticide ingestion | Peer reviewed – human harm | |||||||
| Myers J, London L, & Lucchini RG. | Neurotoxicology and development: Human, environmental and social impacts | 2014 | NeuroToxicology, Vol. 45; 2014: 217-219, ISSN 0161-813X | Centre for Environment and Occupational Health Research, School of Public Health and Family Medicine, Faculty of Health Sciences, University of Cape Town, SA; Swiss Tropical and Public Health Institute (Swiss TPH), Switzerland; Hair and Skin Research Laboratory, University of Cape Town and Groote Schuur Hospital, SA; Division of Clinical Pharmacology, Department of Medicine, University of Cape Town, SA; University of Basel, Switzerland; & Institute for Risk Assessment Sciences (IRAS), Utrecht University, The Netherlands. | The 12th International symposium of the Scientific Committee on Neurotoxicology and Psychophysiology, International Commission on Occupational Health was held in Cape Town, South Africa on March 24–27, 2013. Reflecting the meeting aiming to build greater focus on challenges facing working populations and communities in developing countries, the Symposium theme was Neurotoxicology and Development: Human, Environmental and Social Impacts. A total of 23 countries were represented with strong participation from 5 African countries. In addition to the more traditional topics of these Symposia, like metal, solvents and pesticides neurotoxicity, the conference embraced several new themes including affective disorders arising from chemical exposure, neurodevelopmental impacts in early life and novel approaches to genetic and epigenetic biomarkers for the assessment of neurotoxic impact. The theme of the conference prompted extensive discussions, which have laid the basis for a number of new directions for research, advocacy and capacity building to prevent and manage chemical neurotoxicity in workplace and community settings across the globe. | General | NA | NA | NA | NA | Pesticide usage | General | NA | Several | Route of exposure (environmental) | Peer reviewed – human harm | ||||||
| Naidoo S, London L, Rother H, et al. | Pesticide safety training and practices in women working in small-scale agriculture in SA | 2010 | Occupational and Environmental Medicine 2010;67:823-828. Full thesis available on Research Gate. | Department for Occupational and Environmental Health, Nelson R Mandela School of Medicine, University of KwaZulu-Natal. | Objectives: Unregulated use of pesticides continues in developing countries in the presence of illiteracy and limited safety training and practices. This paper describes training and safety practices when mixing and spraying pesticides, and acetylcholinesterase levels among women farmers in KwaZulu-Natal, SA. Methods: A cross-sectional study conducted in women working in small-scale agriculture in rural KwaZulu-Natal, SA in 2006 assessed pesticide training and safety practices using a questionnaire survey and measured acetylcholinesterase levels in 803 women. Three components of safety behaviour were identified through principle component analysis and described. Results: The mean age of participants was 41.8 years (range 18–82 years) with a mean of 6.9 years (range 1–12 years) of education among school attendees. Among the 803 women included, 366 (45.6%) were the primary sprayers on their farm. Only 16.4% of the sprayers had ever attended a pesticide training course and only 18.0% reported ever reading pesticide labels. Of the women using some form of protective equipment, 56.7% and 54.9% reported doing so when mixing and spraying pesticides, respectively. The mean acetylcholinesterase level corrected for haemoglobin among study participants was 28.9 U/g Hb (95% CI 28.4 to 29.4). Conclusion: Women working in small-scale agriculture in rural KwaZulu-Natal with limited access to pesticide training observe few safety practices when mixing and spraying pesticides. | General | Women working in small-scale agriculture in rural KwaZulu-Natal with limited access to pesticide training observe few safety practices when mixing and spraying pesticides.The mean acetylcholinesterase level corrected for haemoglobin among study participants was 28.9 U/g Hb (95% CI 28.4 to 29.4). (Low levels of acetylcholine are associated with memory issues and muscle disorders). | 2006 | Rural KwaZulu-Natal, SA | Cross-sectional study conducted in women working in small-scale agriculture | Agriculture (crop protection) | Exposure due to lack of PPP. | Workplace study | Dermal | Direct exposure in the field | NA | NA | NA | Peer reviewed – human harm | |||
| Naidoo S., London L., Burdorf A, Naidoo RN, & Kromhout H. | Agricultural Activities, Pesticide Use and Occupational Hazards among Women Working in Small Scale Farming in Northern KwaZulu-Natal, SA | 2013 | International Journal of Occupational and Environmental Health. Volume 14, 2008: Issue 3 | Department of Occupational and Environmental Health, Nelson R Mandela School of Medicine, University of KwaZulu-Natal. | SA's land policies have increased women's participation in agriculture, but limited information exists about their agricultural activities. We surveyed 911 women working on the Makhatini Flats in Northern KwaZulu-Natal in 2006, gathering data on demographics, agricultural activities, crop production and pesticide use in both irrigated and Dryland areas. Average age of participants was 41.9, with Drylands women slightly older. Education levels were low among both groups, but lowest in the Drylands. Drylands women were more likely to engage in reported agricultural activities, including pesticide spraying. Use of World Health Organization class I and II pesticides was reported in both areas. Farm ownership, age <30 years, and being a sprayer were associated with knowledge of the names of pesticides utilized. This analysis suggests that women on the Drylands face greater risk of adverse ergonomic health outcomes and women from both areas are equally at risk for adverse pesticide related health outcomes. | General. WHO class I and II pesticides | Use of World Health Organization class I and II pesticides was reported in both areas. Women on the Drylands face greater risk of adverse ergonomic health outcomes and women from both areas are equally at risk for adverse pesticide related health outcomes. | 2006 | Makhatini Flats in Northern KwaZulu-Natal | Data on demographics, agricultural activities, crop production and pesticide use in both irrigated and Dryland areas. | Agriculture (crop protection) | Risk of adverse ergonomic health outcomes | Workplace study | Several | Direct exposure in the field | NA | NA | This study highlights the need for policy and institutional support for small-scale farmers in SA. In this group of working women in rural SA a long term strategy reducing occupational exposure and preventing adverse health outcomes, making available affordable interventions addressing occupational exposure and safety, has to be developed and given institutional support. | Peer reviewed – human harm | |||
| Naidoo S, London L, Burdorf A, Naidoo RN, & Kromhout H. | Spontaneous miscarriages and infant deaths among female farmers in rural SA | 2011 | Scand J Work Environ Health. 2011; 37(3):227-236 | Department of Occupational and Environmental Health, Nelson R Mandela School of Medicine, University of KwaZulu-Natal. | Objectives: This study examined associations of demographics and occupational factors with spontaneous miscarriages and infant deaths among women working in agriculture in KwaZulu-Natal, SA. Method: This cross-sectional study in 2006 described and compared reproductive outcomes among 911 women working in agriculture in two distinct areas (i.e., the irrigation scheme and drylands) of the Makhatini Flats, KwaZulu-Natal, SA. Associations between demographics, agricultural activities, physical load, pesticide spraying and self-reported "spontaneous miscarriage" and "infant death" (death in the first year) were explored using univariate and multivariate analyses. Results: Women (N=887) reported 4796 pregnancies, 322 spontaneous miscarriages, 137 infant deaths. Adjusting for age, education, and length of recall of pregnancy, spraying pesticides during the first three months of a pregnancy was associated with spontaneous miscarriage [irrigation scheme odds ratio (OR) 2.8, (95% CI) 1.1-7.2; drylands OR 2.5, 95% CI 1.2-5.6]. Irrigation scheme women aged ≥ 40 years were more likely to report spontaneous miscarriage (OR 3.1, 95% CI 1.2-8.2). Owning one's farm or working a family farm among irrigation scheme women (OR: 2.3; 95 % CI 1.2-4.4) and working for ≥ 10 years among drylands women (OR 2.1, 95 % CI 1.1-4.3) were associated with infant death. Weeding was inversely associated with infant death among irrigation scheme women (OR 0.4, 95 % CI 0.2-0.7). Conclusion: This study found that women reporting spontaneous miscarriage were more likely to have sprayed pesticides during pregnancy, and those reporting infant death were more likely to have owned their farms and worked longer in agriculture. | General | Women reporting spontaneous miscarriage were more likely to have sprayed pesticides during pregnancy, and those reporting infant death were more likely to have owned their farms and worked longer in agriculture. | 2006 | Makhatini Flats in Northern KwaZulu-Natal | Associations among 911 women between demographics, agricultural activities, physical load, pesticide spraying and self-reported maternal outcome using univariate and multivariate analyses. | Agriculture (crop protection) | Spontaneous miscarriage and infant death | Workplace study | Several | Direct exposure in the field | NA | NA | This study highlights the need for policy and institutional support for small-scale farmers in SA. In this group of working women in rural SA a long term strategy reducing occupational exposure and preventing adverse health outcomes, making available affordable interventions addressing occupational exposure and safety, has to be developed and given institutional support. | Peer reviewed – human harm | |||
| Ngubane Z, Dzwairo B, Moodley B, Stenström TA, & Sokolova E. | Quantitative assessment of human health risks from chemical pollution in the uMsunduzi River, SA | 2023 | Environmental Science and Pollution Research (2023) 30:118013–118024 | Department of Civil Engineering, Midlands, Durban, University of Technology, Pietermaritzburg; Institute for Water and Wastewater Technology, Durban, University of Technology, Durban; School of Chemistry and Physics, University of KwaZulu-Natal, Durban, SA; & Department of Earth Sciences, Uppsala University, Sweden. | A quantitative chemical risk assessment was performed using published data as well as data from the official monitoring programme for the uMsunduzi River in KwaZulu-Natal, SA. The chemicals assessed were organochlorinated pesticides (OCPs), pharmaceuticals and personal care products (PPCPs), heavy metals, and nitrates and phosphates. The water from uMsunduzi River is used locally without treatment. Consequently, the exposure routes investigated were via ingestion during domestic drinking and incidental ingestion during recreational activities, which were swimming and non-competitive canoeing, for both adults and children. For the individual chemicals, non-carcinogenic risks using the hazard quotient (HQ) and carcinogenic risks using the cancer risk (CR) were quantified. It was found that the exposed population is likely to experience non-carcinogenic effects from pesticides and phosphates, but not from PPCPs, heavy metals and nitrates. This study also found that the carcinogenic risks for OCPs were higher than the tolerable limit of 10- 5, while for lead the risk was below the tolerable limit. Some of the activities that potentially contribute to chemicals onto the uMsunduzi River are subsistence farming, small plantations, illegal dumping, industries, and broken sewers. The findings of this study may act as the technical foundation for the introduction of pollution reduction measures within the catchment, including public education. | Hexachlorobenzene Hexachlorocyclohexane Heptachlor Aldrin DDD DDT Dieldrin Endrin Mirex | The pesticides detected in the uMsunduzi River were: hexachlorobenzene (HCB), hexachlorocyclohexane (HCH), heptachlor, aldrin, DDD, DDT, dieldrin, endrin, and mirex. The exposed population is likely to experience non-carcinogenic effects from pesticides and phosphates, but not from PPCPs, heavy metals and nitrates. This study also found that the carcinogenic risks for OCPs were higher than the tolerable limit of 10- 5, while for lead the risk was below the tolerable limit. The possible non-carcinogenic health risks may lead to increased risk of hospitalisations and death. | Unspecified | uMsunduzi River in KwaZulu-Natal, SA | Two samples (per location) were collected, and the concentrations. A grab sampling technique was used to collect wastewater or surface water samples from a depth of 1–2 cm from the water surface. | Waste water contamination | Communities are also exposed to a high risk of cancer due to presence of pesticides in the river (use for recreational purposes and conusmed untreated). | Residential study | Pesticide Ingestion | Sewage works | Pollution with agricultural chemicals, nutrient enrichment, leading to autotrophic growth, which has several consequences, such as biodiversity loss, oxygen depletion,algal toxin production, and taste/odour generation. Freshwater eutrophication is often caused by phosphate enrichment, and phosphate limitation is commonly used to control it. | Fresh water | The population in the catchment of SA's uMsunduzi River is exposed to health risks through drinking untreated water from the river (in the rural areas), swimming (in the entire catchment), and canoeing (in the urban area). Organochlorinated pesticides were found to pose elevated cancer risks (except endrin), as well as cause long-term non-carcinogenic effects, in all subbasins. Heavy metals and pharmaceuticals and personal care products occurred at sub-risk levels. Phosphates could have ecological nd health impacts, especially near the Inanda Dam. These findings aid catchment managers in prioritising high-risk areas when reducing chemical pollution in the uMsunduzi River. | Peer reviewed – human harm | |||
| Nsibande S, Dabrowski J, Van der Walt E, Venter A, & Forbes PBC. | Validation of the AGDISP model for predicting airborne atrazine spray drift: A South African ground application case study | 2015 | Chemosphere, Vol. 138; 2015: 454-461, ISSN 0045-6535, | Department of Chemistry, Faculty of Natural and Agricultural Sciences, University of Pretoria; CSIR, Natural Resources and Environment, Pretoria; Agricultural Research Council, Plant Protection Research Institute, SA. | Air dispersion software models for evaluating pesticide spray drift during application have been developed that can potentially serve as a cheaper convenient alternative to field monitoring campaigns. Such models require validation against field monitoring data in order for them to be employed with confidence, especially when they are used to implement regulatory measures or to evaluate potential human exposure levels. In this case study, off-target pesticide drift was monitored during ground application of a pesticide mixture to a sorghum field in SA. Atrazine was used as a drift tracer. High volume air sampling onto polyurethane foam (PUF) was conducted at six downwind locations and at four heights at each sampling point. Additional data, including meteorological information, required to simulate the spray drift with the AGDISP air dispersion model was collected. The PUF plugs were extracted by a plunger method utilizing a hexane:acetone mixture with analysis by GC-NPD (94.5% recovery, 3.3% RSD, and LOD 8.7 pg). Atrazine concentrations ranged from 4.55 ng L1 adjacent to the field to 186 pg L1 at 400 m downwind. These results compared favourably with modeled output data, resulting in the validation of the model up to 400 m from the application site for the first time. Sensitivity studies showed the importance of droplet size distribution on spray drift, which highlighted the need for good nozzle maintenance. Results of this case study indicate that the model may provide meaningful input into environmental and human health risk assessment studies in SA and other developing countries. | Atrazine | Sensitivity studies showed the importance of droplet size distribution on spray drift, which highlighted the need for good nozzle maintenance. | Standerton, SA | Air samples | Agriculture (crop protection) | NA | NA | NA | Spray drift | NA | Air | Results of this case study indicate that the model may provide meaningful input into environmental and human health risk assessment studies in SA. | Air borne samples are important in assessing inhalation exposure, while deposition samples give an indication of possible contamination of nearby fresh water bodies, for example. The different but complementary information thus provided is useful in risk assessment studies and in better understanding the evolution of the spray cloud as it drifts away from the application site. | Peer reviewed – environmental harm | |||
| Ojemaye CY, Onwordi CT, Pampanin DM, Sydnes MO, & Petrik L. | Presence and risk assessment of herbicides in the marine environment of Camps Bay (Cape Town, SA) | 2020 | Science of the Total Environment 738 (2020): 140346 | Environmental and Nano Science Group, Department of Chemistry, University of the Western Cape, Cape Town, SA; Department of Chemistry, Bioscience and Environmental Technology, Faculty of Science and Technology, University of Stavanger, Norway; & Department of Chemistry, Faculty of Science, Lagos State University, Nigeria | The present study was conducted during a time of drought to assess the concentration of herbicides and their potential for accumulation in marine biota found in the near shore marine environment of an urban setting (Camps Bay, Cape Town, SA). The purpose was to establish whether raw sewage containing selected persistent chemicals that are released through a local marine outfall would be sufficiently diluted by the ocean to prevent impact on the near-shore marine environment of the suburb Camps Bay. Samples of seawater, sediment, seaweed, and selected marine organisms present in the near shore environment, such as limpets (Cymbula granatina), mussels (Mytilus galloprovincialis), and sea urchins (Parechinus angulosus), were analysed for five indicator herbicides, namely atrazine, alachlor, simazine, metolachlor, and butachlor, with gas chromatography coupled with a mass spectrometer. The concentration of the compounds detected ranged from below the limit of detection (bLOD) to 4.2 ng/L in seawater, bLOD to 45.3 ng/g dry weight (dw) in sediments, bLOD to 157.8 ng/g dw in marine organisms, and between 12.3 and 87.0 ng/g dw in seaweed. Results of ecological risk assessment for acute and chronic risk, calculated following the US Environmental Protection Agency method, showed a possible threat to the near shore environment from sewage released by the marine outfall, as the herbicide contamination in the biota posed a low to high ecotoxicological risk for marine organisms. The hazard quotients and carcinogenic risk caused by herbicide pollution in Camps Bay seawater were above the acceptable level indicating that these chemicals pose adverse health effects, should an average sized human (70 kg) consume any of the marine species analysed herein on a daily basis (daily consumption of 54 g), over a lifetime period (life expectancy of 70 years). The study also indicated the extensive use of these herbicides for cosmetic and ornamental purposes in gardening, or for weed control in an urban setting, thus, it is apparent that consumers and municipalities need to be educated about their inadvertent use and safe disposal of these compounds. The use of these herbicides to control weeds within the area and discharge of sewage to Camps Bay must be checked through adequate control of the trade, handling of herbicides, and enforcement of appropriate sanctions and development of suitable regulations. | Atrazine Alachlor Simazine Metolachlor Butachlor | Herbicide levels in samples from the Cape Town oceanic environment were quantified. Simazine and atrazine were the most frequently detected in all the tested sample matrices, with simazine having the highest concentration in all cases. The carcinogenic risk of Camps Bay edible species were above acceptable levels, while only simazine levels showed a non-carcinogenic risk. All studied herbicides were bioaccumulative. The contaminated marine biota may pose a risk to humans through food consumption. These results indicated that an average sized human (70 kg) might suffer significant health risks should any of the seafood analysed herein be consumed on a daily basis (54 g) over a lifetime period (life expectancy of 70 years). | Unspecified | Camps Bay shoreline, Western Cape, SA. | Seawater samples were collected using a kayak approximately 30 cm below the surface in 2 L amber glass bottles with screw caps, in triplicate. Samples were taken from under the surface to avoid floating debris. Replicates of three different seawater samples were collected from different points; sample 1was collected at the shoreline (point 3),while samples 2 and 3 (points 5 and 4) were collected from the ocean. Replicate seawater samples collected from each point were analysed individually, and the obtained average/ mean was reported in this study. Mussel (Mytilus galloprovincialis) (n = 30), sea urchin (Parechinus angulosus) (n = 15), limpet (Cymbula granatina) (n=25), seaweed, (sea lettuce (Ulva sp.) and upright codium(Codiumfragile)) (n=500 g) sampleswere collectedwith a stainless steel tong and a knife from the intertidal zone in rock pools along the shore line of Camps Bay in 2017 (points 6–12). Biological samples were wrapped in aluminium foil and then placed in polyethylene bags. Sediment and beach South Africand samples (n = 250 g) were collected (points 1 and 2) with a stainless steel grab and placed in glass containers. All sediment and biota samples were then placed in cooler bags on ice during transportation to the laboratory. All seaweed samples as well as marine organisms that were removed from their shells upon arrival at the laboratory,were placed in polyethylene bags and immediately stored at −20 °C until further analyses. | Domestice use (gardening) | Carcinogenic risk from consuming local sea organisms. | Residential study | Oral | Sewage works | The study indicated the extensive use of these herbicides for cosmetic and ornamental purposes in gardening, or for weed control in an urban setting as a suspected source of contamination of the marine ecosystem, through release into sewage system. | Sea water | If no urgent regulation is put in place to mitigate the release of effluents harbouring these chemicals into the marine environment of an isolated suburban community like Camps Bay, the health impact of those chemicals will be deleterious for the marine biota and inhabitants of this region. In SA, the public health significance of water source pollution by pesticides, particularly herbicides, has attracted little attention from government and regulatory agencies, unlike microbiological quality of potable water, which is of a high priority to legislative bodies. This abnormality is reflected in the current drinking water, effluent discharge limits and aquatic ecosystem guidelines in SA (CSIR, 2017; DWAF, 1996a, 1996b) with few standards for organic contaminants, and only one standard for a herbicide, atrazine (0–0.002 mg/L), but with detailed standards for coliform content and inorganics. Since SA is a major market in Africa for pesticides, this is a serious gap that needs to be closed very urgently. Atrazine was withdrawn for use on heavy clay soils (Springbok Flats) in 1977 and its industrial use withdrawn on 31 March 1995 (DAFF, 2017). The maximal residue levels (MRL) of herbicide in their associated crops are: alachlor 0.05–0.1 mg/kg, metolachlor 0.05 mg/kg, simazine 0.2 and 10 mg/kg and atrazine 0.05 mg/kg. Most countries have developed their pesticide laws and regulatory authorities, while in SA; herbicides are managed under Fertilizers, Farm Feeds, Agricultural Remedies and Stock Remedies Act, governed by the Department of Agriculture, Forestry and Fisheries. This study and other studies in SA showed the presence of herbicides and pesticides in the aquatic ecosystem. Hence, the regulation of this class of compounds in marine and freshwater ecosystem needs to be put in place, also considering that people might be the end user of contaminated seafood. | Peer reviewed – environmental harm | |||
| Ojemaye CY, Onwordi CT, & Petrik L. | Herbicides in the tissues and organs of different fish species (Kalk Bay harbour, SA): occurrence, levels and risk assessment | 2020 | International Journal of Environmental Science and Technology (2020) 17:1637–1648 | Environmental and Nano Science Group, Department of Chemistry, University of the Western Cape, Cape Town, SA. | This study evaluated the levels and concentrations of five selected herbicides in fish species wild-caught and sold at Kalk Bay Harbour, Cape Town, SA. The samples were analysed using gas chromatography coupled with mass chromatography. The concentration detected in the fish samples ranged from atrazine: not detected (nd) to 66 ng/g dry weight(dw), simazine: nd to 158 ng/g dw, alachlor: nd to 48 ng/g dw, metolachlor: nd to 94 ng/g dw and butachlor: nd to 9 ng/gdw. The ecological risk assessment results were greater than 0.5 for acute risk and 1.0 chronic risk, while the human risk evaluation indicates that the concentration of these chemical contaminants in the selected fish samples showed that there is possibility of developing cancers should the fishes be consumed over a period of time. Therefore, there is need to set up an appropriate guideline and monitoring of the use, storage and disposal of these chemicals in Western Cape Province and SA generally. | Atrazine Alachlor Simazine Metolachlor Butachlor | The study found that fish samples from Kalk Bay Harbour are highly contaminated with some of these herbicide residues, with simazine having the highest concentration detected in all the fish species and their organs/part. However, higher levels of herbicides were found on average in the fillet part of all the fish species. This may be possible because of the usage of these herbicides in this province. Example of detailed finding: The observed risk quotients in snoek fish for simazine were higher than the permitted levels, which indicates a high acute risk concern and high chronic risk concern in the liver, gills and intestine of the snoek fish except in the fillet where it was not detected, unlike atrazine which showed a high acute and chronic risk in all the parts of the fish. | 2017 | Kalk Bay Harbour, False Bay, Western Cape, SA. | The different fish species were purchased as a whole from the flinching table from daily wild catches in the environs of Cape Point, freshly landed and sold at Kalk Bay harbour, Cape Town, SA. The samples were conveyed to the laboratory in polyethylene bags on ice. Once in the laboratory, each fish species was processed differently, the samples were rinsed with Millipore water, dried, weighed and dissected. Each fish species’ dissected organs and tissue parts (fillet, gills,liver and intestine) were isolated, and processed separately. The different fish parts of each fish species were homogenized using a stainless steel laboratory blender, placed in aluminium wrappers and freeze-dried. The samples were packed individually in polyethylene bags and finally stored at −20 °C until further analysis. | Agriculture (crop protection) | All the risk values calculated for compounds that were detected in fish species in this study were considerably higher than the recommended risk value, and should one consume these fish samples there is a possibility of developing cancer. | Residential study | Oral | Sewage works | Cities such as Cape Town rely on herbicides for weed control on pavements, golf course and parks insteadof weed by hand. Given that the city seasonally applies weed killers, it is highly likely that such herbicides would leach out into storm water drains and out into the oceans during rainfall event. Moreover, many homeowners apply herbicides to curb unwanted growth in gardens. Thus, urban use as well as agricultural application may contribute to this pollution at sea. | Sea water | The importance of instigating these compounds into the marine environment is essential to be considered against the many damaging side effects. Therefore, critical consideration should be given to educating the public, farmers as well as municipal officers and encouraging the use of less-harmful and toxic alternatives and banning their use as has been done elsewhere due to their well-known adverse effect. There is a need for either banning or setting up of an appropriate guideline and monitoring of the use, storage and disposal of chemical in SA generally and Western Cape Province specifically. | Peer reviewed – environmental harm | |||
| Orellana, M, United Nations Special Rapporteur. | Report of the Special Rapporteur on the implications for human rights of the environmentally sound management and disposal of hazardous substances and wastes | 2026 | Human Rights Council – Fifty-seventh session, 9 September–9 October 2024. Agenda item 3: Promotion and protection of all human rights, civil, political, economic, social and cultural rights, including the right to development | United Nations | The Special Rapporteur on the implications for human rights of the environmentally sound management and disposal of hazardous substances and wastes, Marcos Orellana, visited SA from 31 July to 11 August 2023. He focused on key issues, such as air pollution, just transition, mining, the control and sound management of hazardous substances, including mercury, asbestos and polychlorinated biphenyls, pesticides and waste management. The Special Rapporteur highlights the advanced stance of the South African Constitution on human rights, including its recognition of the right to a healthy environment, 25 years before the General Assembly recognized that right in 2022. However, he notes that the crude legacy of pre-1994 environmental racism persists, exacerbated by outdated laws and inadequate enforcement. The negative impacts of toxic pollution from mining, coal-fired power plants, greenhouse gas-intensive projects, landfills, pesticides and other hazardous substances disproportionately affect marginalized and low-income communities along racial lines. | NA | Refer to section G of the report. In the Western Cape, the Special Rapporteur heard from women farm workers who reported being asked to work in the vineyards immediately after pesticides had been sprayed, without being provided with personal protective equipment and while a thick layer of pesticides still covered the grapes. Discussions during the Special Rapporteur’s visit also raised concerns around transparency and corporate capture, including in pesticide registration processes and the role of scientists in them. The 2015 “Guideline of the registration process for agricultural remedies” explicitly refers to industry’s definition of “confidential business information”. At the time of the visit, a list of registered pesticides in SA could only be accessed through CropLife SA, an association representing agrochemical companies, for a fee. The new regulations on pesticides commit the Registrar, who oversees the registration, regulation and prohibition of pesticides among other functions, to providing an updated quarterly list of registered pesticides. Regulatory gaps and enforcement shortcomings have resulted in the emergence of “street pesticides” that are widely available in street markets and used in informal settlements to combat rampant rat and pest infestations, which are aggravated by the absence of adequate sanitation services. Street pesticides are either legally registered for agricultural use but decanted into unlabelled containers and used illegally for domestic pest control, or they are unregistered products, probably imported illegally. Interlocutors (Gauteng Department of Health) informed the Special Rapporteur of the many children who had been poisoned or died after eating, drinking or handling hazardous street pesticides. In 2022, there were 34 poisoning cases, including five deaths, in Gauteng from an organophosphate, probably terbufos. Local experts and medical professionals also flagged to the Special Rapporteur that pesticide poisoning cases in SA were grossly underreported. In September 2022, Nicholas Molver and his wife, Matri, died in their sleep after inhaling toxic fumes following the fumigation of the neighbouring apartment, where pesticides not registered for domestic pest control or indoor fumigation and had allegedly been used by individuals not registered as pest control operators. The Molver family, among other victims of pesticide poisoning and negligent or illegal pesticide use, face a backlog of up to 10 years of toxicological testing in the three under resourced public forensic laboratories in SA. That is a serious obstacle to the realization of the right of access to justice. | NA | Pesticide manufacturing | (a) Prohibit aerial spraying; (b) Take decisive action to ensure the environmentally sound management and disposal of pesticide containers and obsolete stockpiles, including traceability mechanisms; (c) Promote sustainable agricultural practices and small farming; (d) Ban imports of pesticides that are banned in their country of origin; (e) Ensure access to sanitation services in informal settlements to eliminate demand for street pesticides; (f) Outline clear mechanisms for public participation in pesticide registration processes; (g) Find alternative solutions to toxicological testing requirements to tackle the issue of the backlogs in State toxicology centres; (h) Enhance labelling requirements to include specifications for buffer zones and non-target areas; (i) Initiate a training programme for farm workers on their rights and obligations under the law, the dangers of pesticide misuse, safe handling of pesticides and how to read labels; (j) Make pesticide labels available in more languages, particularly those accessible to farm workers; (k) Ensure access to adequate health care for farm workers. | Report/working paper/book – policy | |||||||||||
| Patterton HG. | Scoping study and research strategy development on currently known and emerging contaminants influencing drinking water quality | 2012 | WRC Report No. 2093/1/13 ISBN 978-1-4312-0440-3 | Water Research Commission | Summarised executive summary: The aim of this study was to investigate and identify the most important new substances in drinking water that could be a concern to human health in SA. The specific aims were: 1. Complete a comprehensive review of literature on emerging contaminants (ECs) 2. Identification of three most critical ECs in SA 3. Review of current methods to analyse and quantitate ECs in water 4. Complete a national reconnaissance study on the three critical ECs 5. Development of risk matrix for the three critical ECs 6. Define critical issues that must be addressed regarding ECs 7. Identify knowledge and skill gaps, propose a future research strategy and develop a Terms of Reference for the research. A combined total of 34 pharmaceuticals and pesticides from 618 tested, were detected in the water samples over a 4-season period. In line with the preliminary screen, atrazine, carbamazepine and terbuthylazine were detected in the highest number of water samples and with the greatest number of seasonal occurrences. Apart from these compounds, compounds that were detected in 3 or more seasons included hexazinone, phenytoin, and tebuthiuron (Durban), tebuthiuron (Johannesburg), and fluconazole, phenytoin and tebuthiuron (Bloemfontein). The antimalarial, cinchonidine, was detected in at least 3 seasons in each of the seven cities that formed part of this study. | Atrazine Carbamazepine Terbutylazine Hexazinone Tebuthiuron Fluconazole Phenytoin Cinchonidine | 34 pharmaceuticals and pesticides were detected. The study found 3 chemical determinants with the highest potential of having a negative health impact: atrazine and terbuthylazine, and the anticonvulsant, carbamazepine. Quantitation of the herbicide atrazine showed that it was present at elevated levels (approximately 12 ng/L) compared to the other cities, in each of the four seasons in Johannesburg. A similar elevated seasonal presence was observed in Johannesburg for the herbicide terbuthylazine, which was present at approximately 12 ng/L in each season. The highest level of atrazine (163 ng/L) and terbuthylazine (206 ng/L) determined, were in Pretoria in the autumn. The maximum levels detected for each of the three surveyed. Compounds never exceeded the stipulated MCL, which would make it appear that even the highest recorded levels of the three ECs included in this survey never approached a level where it would be expected to have an impact on human health (...) However, in order to map the hazard severity level of a compound, detailed data on the health impact, preferably from medical case studies or epidemiological studies, must be available, including exposure concentrations, conditions, and health effects. Very little precise data is available over an environmentally relevant concentration range in the case of atrazine, terbuthylazine and carbamazepine. To overcome this shortcoming, the researcher proposed a risk matrix ranging from 1 to 20, representing the range from low severity/low frequency to high severity/high frequency risks. The occurrence of atrazine and terbuthylazine in the water sourced from Bloemfontein, Johannesburg, Durban and Pietermaritzburg was found to represent a medium hazard. Terbuthylazine was a medium risk in the water from Cape Town. Carbamazepine was found to be a medium risk in the water from Johannesburg, Pretoria, Bloemfontein, Durban and Pietermaritzburg, Cape Town and Port Elizabeth. However, the frequency and level of the detected compounds did not require any specific and aggressive remedial action. | 2012 | Water purification plants in Bloemfontein, Johannesburg, Pretoria, Durban, Pietermaritzburg, Port Elizabeth and Cape Town. | Since chemicals and microorganisms that are present in drinking water in the EU or the US may not necessarily be present in drinking water in SA, as well as the fact that some chemicals for which guideline values exist may still be unregulated in SA, the researcher performed a limited, qualitative survey on drinking water sampled on multiple occasions in two major cities in SA. They concentrated on the detection of polar, water soluble compounds. An extensive national survey on the concentration of atrazine and terbuthylazine, and the anticonvulSouth Africant, carbamazepine in drinking water of several metropolitan areas was untertaken. A qualitative screening was also performed on each of the water samples. Samples were collected from water purification plants in Bloemfontein, Johannesburg, Pretoria, Durban, Pietermaritzburg, Port Elizabeth and Cape Town at points before the water entered the reticulation system. Water was also collected from domestic taps in southern and northern Bloemfontein, served by different water sources. | Agriculture (crop protection) | The study assessed level of water contamination. | Residential study | Oral | Runoff post agric. application | A national programme in which drinking water is seasonally or bi-annually qualitatively screened, and frequently observed ECs quantitated, should be considered. | Several areas were clearly identified that require further research to fully understand the possible impact of emerging contaminants (ECs) on the SA water consumer. Although the quantitated levels of the three most frequently observed ECs were less than 10% of their respective MCLs, the range of EC observed may indicate a growing problem. Furthermore, the proposed hazard risk matrix showed than we lacked information on the vulnerability of populations and their capacity to overcome the posed hazard. This ability is particularly acute for economically repressed, rural population that were excluded by the scope of this study. It is recommended that a similar qualitative screen and quantitation of the level of select, identified ECs be undertaken in one or more rural communities that routinely use raw water directly from rivers or dams. Lastly, medical waste and pesticides are often dumped in unprepared locations, where leaching of pharmaceuticals and pesticides into groundwater reservoirs is possible. The contamination of groundwater, and retrieval and use of such water through boreholes, remain unexplored. We suggest a study on the presence of pharmaceuticals in borehole water due to leaching from medical waste dumping grounds. | Report/working paper/book – policy | ||||
| Patrick S, Bornman M, Joubert A, Pitts N, Naidoo V, & De Jager C. | Effects of environmental endocrine disruptors, including insecticides used for malaria vector control on reproductive parameters of male rats | 2016 | Reprod Toxicol. 2016 Jun;61:19-27.Epub 2016 Feb 27. PMID: 26928317. | University of Pretoria | DDT DDE Deltamethrin p-Nonylphenol | The data from this study indicate that lifetime (in utero-, lactational- and direct) exposure to DDT, DDE, DM, p-NP and phytoestrogens have a negative influence on male reproductive health and associated endocrine-sensitive endpoints. Endocrine disrupting chemicals (EDC)-exposures to mothers living in malaria-areas and the reproductive health of their male offspring. | Unspecified | Pretoria Biomedical Research Centre | The study used twenty-four pregnant female Sprague-Dawley rats. Twenty-four pregnant females (six pregnant females per group) were assigned into 4 groups and allowed to acclimatize for 3 days, prior to dosing. | NA | Altered embryonic patterning and/or a negative impact on the reproductive system development in boys. | Residential study | In utero | Air | Since these EDCs, in particular DDT and DDE have long half-lives, the long-term and thus multiple-generational effects need to be addressed in future studies. From these results, the testes are the clear targets of the selected EDCs used in this study. The abnormal testicular histology with apical sloughing and seminiferous tubule disorganization warrants investigation into the possible molecular and biochemical mechanisms and changes that a lifetime of exposure to these EDCs may have on testicular function. In particular, the results from this study suggest further investigation into the effect that exposure to the selected EDCs may have on the Sertoli cells. | Peer reviewed – human harm | ||||||
| Pheiffer W, Wolmarans NJ, Gerber R, Yohannes YB, Ikenaka Y, Ishizuka M, Smit NJ, Wepener V, & Pieters R. | Fish consumption from urban impoundments: What are the health risks associated with DDTs and other organochlorine pesticides in fish to township residents of a major inland city | 2018 | Science of The Total Environment Volumes 628–629, 1 July 2018, Pages 517-527 | Water Research Group, Unit for Environmental Science and Management, North-West University, SA; Laboratory of Toxicology, Department of Environmental Veterinary Science, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Hokkaido University, Japan; & Department of Chemistry, College of Natural and Computational Science, University of Gondar, Ethiopia. | Organochlorine pesticides (OCPs) in SA have for the most part been banned, except dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane (DDT) which is still used as malaria vector control. The aim of this study was to determine OCP residues in the aquatic fauna of one of SA's most populated areas, Soweto. Risk to human health through OCP exposure via fish consumption was investigated. Clarias gariepinus was chosen as a bioindicator because it is an apex predator that is in abundance but is also a valued food source. Dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethanes (DDTs), hexachlorocyclohexanes (HCHs), and chlordanes (CHLs) were detected in the fish tissue with the DDTs being the most prevalent at all sites. Of the three locations, Fleurhof, Orlando, and Lenasia, the latter location's fish had the highest ΣOCP load, ranging between 81 and 1190 ng/g wm. The DDTs were determined to be from historic use, whereas the CHL levels indicated more recent inputs. Although the possibility of illegal use cannot be excluded completely, the presence of OCPs outside of their allowed areas of use indicate that these compounds not only stay in the aquatic systems long term but may be of concern in areas previously not considered high risk areas. The OCP residues in C. gariepinus from the study area pose an extremely high risk to human health when consumed and has a cancer risk as high as 1 in 10. This potential problem should be kept in consideration when developing national health and conservation strategies. | DDT | This study found unexpected high levels of apparently redundant OCPs in a highly populated urban area. DDTs were the most detected OCP group. Their presence is most likely attributed to long distance transport and historic production and formulation of OCPs in the areas surrounding the study site. The concentrations of OCPs in the fish pose great risk to human health, even higher than international acceptable levels using standard risk assessment parameters. The risk to human health is extremely high when consumed, and has a cancer risk as high as 1 in 10. | Soweto (South Western Townships). The study area is also relatively close to sources where OCPs were manufactured in the past. | Clarias gariepinus was sampled during Austral summer (October) of 2013 from three impoundments in the upper Klip River catchment. The OCP residues were quantified in the muscle of C. gariepinus | Pesticide manufacturing | Cancer risk | Residential study | Several | NA | DDT and other OCP residues in C. gariepinus. | Fresh water | Peer reviewed – human harm | |||||
| Quin BT, De Vos BJ, Fernandes-Whaley M, Roos C, Bouwman H, Kylin H, Pieters R, & Van den Berg J. | Pesticide Use in SA: One of the Largest Importers of Pesticides in Africa | 2011 | Stoytcheva M. (Ed). Pesticides in the Modern World. IntechOpen, 2011. Doi: 10.5772/950. Book chapter 4. | School of Environmental Sciences and Development (Zoology), North-West University; National Metrology Institute of South Africa, Organic and Bio-analysis Chemistry Laboratory, SA; Norwegian Institute for Air Research, The Polar Environmental Centre, Norway; & Department of Water and Environmental Studies, Linköping University, Sweden. | OCPs have been used extensively throughout the world for the protection of crops as well as the control of disease vectors (Kumar et al., 2008). Because of their detrimental effects, many of the OCPs are banned, or restricted to the control of disease vectors. However, due to their highly persistent nature and potential for long-range transport, residues of these chemicals are still found in areas where use had been banned for decades (Gong et al., 2007; Hung et al., 2007). These residues may pose chronic toxicity to animals and humans via air, water, and food intake (Darko et al., 2008). Due to the general lack of data on organochlorine pollution in soils and sediments from SA, the objective of this baseline study was to investigate the presence and concentration of OCPs in soil and sediment from an industrialised in addition to agriculturally impacted areas of South Africa. Chapter focusing on volumes of pesticide in SA and their use. The chapter unpacks alternatives. Includes a Case study: A baseline of organochlorine pesticide residues in soil and sediment from the Vaal Triangle, SA. | DDT Dieldrin Aldrin Heptachlor Endrin Telodrin Chlordane Endosulfan. All registered pesticides in SA in 2005 ( 57-72) | The concentration of OCPs at all the sites was relatively low when compared with literature (Table 3) from other countries. ∑OCPs measured ranged between 0.58 - 6.9 ng g-1 with the highest values found in Vanderbijlpark soil (Vnd-Inf-Soil & Vnd-Ind-Soil), and sediment from the Klip River (KlipRiv). | Vaal Triangle, SA | . Sediment was collected from rivers and streams including the Vaal River (VaalRivV) and its tributaries; Riet Spruit (RietSpr), Klip River (KlipRiv), Suikerbosrand River (SkbrRiv3) and the Taaibos Spruit (TbosSpr). Concurrently, sediment was collected from agricultural areas upstream and downstream of the Vaal Triangle: SkbrRiv1 and SkbrRiv2, east of the Vaal Triangle and VaalRivK, in the Vaal River approximately 70 km downstream of Vanderbijlpark inside the Vredefort Dome World Heritage Site, and a site in the Orange River (OrangeRiv) just after the confluence with the Vaal River. Extraction and analysis for DDT, dicofol, endosulfan and hexachlorocyclohexane (HCH) was done under Norwegian accreditation at NILU in Norway. | NA | NA | Although the need and usefulness of pesticides cannot be denied, the advantages of introducing these chemicals into the environment needs to be weighed against the possible negative side and Management effects. Therefore, serious consideration should be given to expanding the correct use of less harmful alternatives. | List of all pesticides registered in SA, including information on chemical classification, application use and relevant crops as indicated by South African MRL levels (South African Department of Health (DOH), 2005; PAN, 2010). (pp57-72) | Peer reviewed – policy | ||||||||
| Rother H-A, Ruth Hall R, & London L. | Pesticide use among emerging farmers in SA: contributing factors and stakeholder perspectives | 2008 | Development Southern Africa, Vol. 25, 2008: Issue 4 | Division of Environmental Health, School of Public Health and Family Medicine, University of Cape Town, SA. | The commercial agricultural sector in SA has historically been dominated by large-scale operations run by white owners and managers. In redressing this imbalance, black farmers classified as ‘emerging’ are being encouraged to engage in high-input agricultural production in order to obtain ‘commercial’ status. Since existing practices in commercial agriculture rely heavily on pesticides, emerging farmers aspiring to become commercial are pressured to adopt and/or increase the use of pesticides. However, problems of access to land, finances, resources, skills and markets overshadow the health and safety of these farmers and their labour force that may be affected by exposure to pesticides. This paper presents the results of a policy study based on primary interview data with key stakeholders and secondary documentary review data, to illustrate how pesticides are used in an occupational health and safety vacuum because the focus of key institutions is rather on economic productivity. | NA | This paper presents the results of a policy study based on primary interview data with key stakeholders and secondary documentary review data, to illustrate how pesticides are used in an occupational health and safety vacuum because the focus of key institutions is rather on economic productivity. The study shows the agricultural sector is being pushed towards high-input forms of production and monocropping. | Policy study conducted in 2004. | 9 Respondents countrywide. | Primary interview data with key stakeholders and secondary documentary review data. | Agriculture (crop protection) | NA | NA | NA | NA | Air, water & soil | The study shows the agricultural sector is being pushed towards high-input forms of production and monocropping. The net effect of these policies is an over-riding imperative towards commercialisation of production involving the use of pesticides. In the long run, the hidden externalised costs of pesticides (the health cost to the farmer) may negate short-term economic gains from agricultural production with pesticides. Further, these health effects and costs also undermine poverty reduction and food security efforts. | Table 1: Legislation affecting pesticides in SA | Peer reviewed – policy | |||
| Rother, H-A. | Communicating pesticide neurotoxicity research findings and risks to decision-makers and the public | 2014 | NeuroToxicology, 2014 Dec:45:327-37 | Funded by the South African National Department of Health and the South African Medical Research Council. | The extensive research findings on neurotoxic risks of pesticides tend to remain in academic publications rather than being comprehensibly communicated to decision-makers and the public. Protecting health and promoting risk reduction, particularly in developing countries, requires access to current findings in a format that can inform policy, regulations, behaviour change and risk reduction. Successfully communicating research findings may require multiple strategies depending on the target audience’s varying comprehension skills (e.g., numeracy literacy, visual literacy) and ability to interpret scientific data. To illustrate the complexities of risk communication, a case study of exposure to neurotoxic street pesticides amongst poor, urban South African communities attempting to control poverty related pests, is presented. What remains a challenge is how to communicate neurotoxicity research findings consistently and in a meaningful manner for a lay audience, consisting of both the general public and decision makers. A further challenge is to identify who will monitor and evaluate the ways in which these findings are communicated to ensure quality is maintained. Ultimately, researchers should carry the responsibility of knowledge translation and engaging with communication specialists when appropriate. Additionally, institutions should reward this as part of promotion and academic accolade systems, and funders should fund the translational process. Ethics review boards should also play an instrumental role in ensuring that knowledge translation is part of the ethics review requirement, while professional societies should take more responsibility for disseminating research findings to non- academics. | NA | The paper underlines the high complexity of communicating neurotoxicity health risks to decision-makers and pesticide users. It advocates for a coordinated, systematic and regular process for all researchers working on pesticide neurotoxicity. | NA | SA | Literature review and case study . | Domestic use (rodent & insect control) | NA | Residential study | Several | NA | NA | NA | Researchers should carry the responsibility of knowledge translation and engaging with communication specialists when appropriate. Additionally, institutions should reward this as part of promotion and academic accolade systems, and funders should fund the translational process. Ethics review boards should also play an instrumental role in ensuring that knowledge translation is part of the ethics review requirement, while professional societies should take more responsibility for disseminating research findings to non- academics. | The study provides examples of the types of information needed for decision-makers. | Peer reviewed – policy | ||
| Rother, H-A. with contributions from members of the UCT Pesticide Reference Group, with special mention of Professor Leslie London and Roxanne Beauclair | Improving poisoning diagnosis and surveillance of street pesticides | 2012 | S Afr Med J 2012;102(6):485-488. | Funding was provided by the Danish International Development Agency (DANIDA) with support from the DoH and Medical Research Centre of SA. | An effective surveillance system is required to reduce pesticide exposures and poisonings, especially from street pesticides (illegal, unlabelled, and decanted agricultural pesticides used predominately for urban household purposes). Poisoning from any pesticide class, not only organophosphates, constitutes a medically notifiable condition in SA. Current practice, however, is to report only organophosphate cases, resulting in severe under-reporting. The lack of data concerning the link between poisonings and street pesticides has led to the mistaken assumption that urban populations are not at risk from significant pesticide exposures and poisonings. Without accurate statistics, healthcare professionals and policy makers are unaware of the contribution of street pesticide poisonings to the overall health burden. Accurate diagnosis is a prerequisite for notification and subsequent surveillance. An algorithm has been developed to enable healthcare professionals to improve the diagnosis and notification of pesticide poisonings. | Comprehensive list with compounds table. | Addresses issue of practice to report only organophosphate cases, resulting in severe under-reporting. The current poisoning notification surveillance system does not address a registry for chronic health effects resulting from pesticide exposures. The authors established a Pesticide Policy Reference Group with multiple stakeholders from academia and government, to advise a multi-faceted project on street pesticides and child poisonings. With ethics approval from the University of Cape Town (UCT), the project entailed: (i) collecting narratives of poisoning cases at Red Cross, War Memorial Children’s Hospital (RCWMCH) in Cape Town, (ii) conducting reviews of poisoned children’s records, (iii) interviewing informal sellers of street pesticides, (iv) analysing samples of street pesticides, and (v) conducting a township-based household survey. | NA | Cape Town Red Cross Childrens Hospital | Hospital records. | Domestic use (rodent & insect control) | Poisoning | Residential study | Pesticide ingestion | NA | NA | NA | Establishment of a pesticide Policy Reference Group with multiple stakeholders from academia and government; algorithm for improving the notification of pesticide poisonings. | Table 3 of study provides examples of pesticide active ingredients responsible for poisoning. | Peer reviewed – human harm | ||
| Rother H-A, Rivas FA, & DeSouza M. | When standard occupational exposure assessments are unsuitable – exposure observations with South African herbicide sprayers | 2014 | Occup Environ Med 2014;71(Suppl 1):A1–A132 | Division of Environmental Health, School of Public Health and Family Medicine, University of Cape Town, SA. | Objectives South African herbicide sprayers removing alien vegetation are exposed to a myriad of herbicides resulting in acute and chronic health risks. Workers often are not willing to participate in standard biological monitoring assessments through the provision of blood and urine in order to assess these potential risks. Furthermore, laboratory capacity to analyse herbicides residues are limited. The study aim was to document workers’ exposure risks in order to develop health interventions using an observation exposure assessment method. Method: Researchers observed three teams, each comprised of 10 workers and one contractor, from February to June 2012. An observational guide was developed and findings were recorded in a field journal. Observations were supported with video and photographic materials. Results: The on-site observations revealed workers lack of PPE compliance, behaviours that increased their exposure risks, and non-compliance with work standards. Workers’ exposure risks were compounded by harsh working conditions, high turnover rates of workers, worker’s low risk perceptions, power struggles, and gendered beliefs of masculinity being threatened by PPE use. Conclusions: In some circumstances researchers are unable to use biological monitoring methods to establish pesticide exposure risks for workers in developing countries. Observation methods are a viable alternative method, particularly for informing worker risk reduction interventions. | NA – general observation study | The on-site observations revealed workers lack of PPE compliance, behaviours that increased their exposure risks, and non-compliance with work standards. Workers’ exposure risks were compounded by harsh working conditions, high turnover rates of workers, worker’s low risk perceptions, power struggles, and gendered beliefs of masculinity being threatened by PPE use. | 2012 | SA | Researchers observed three teams, each comprised of 10 workers and one contractor, from February to June 2012. An observational guide was developed and findings were recorded in a field journal. Observations were supported with video and photographic materials. | Alien control | Exposure of herbicide sprayers removing alien vegetation. | Workplace study | Several | Direct exposure in the field | NA | NA | In some circumstances researchers are unable to use biological monitoring methods to establish pesticide exposure risks for workers in developing countries. Observation methods are a viable alternative method, particularly for informing worker risk reduction interventions. | Peer reviewed – human harm | |||
| Rother H-A. | Pesticide Labels: Protecting Liability or Health? – Unpacking “misuse” of pesticides | 2018 | Current Opinion in Environmental Science & Health (2018) | Division of Environmental Health, School of Public Health and Family Medicine, University of Cape Town, SA. | Five factors are presented that pesticide end-users must achieve concurrently in order to understand and apply the information found on a pesticide label. It is argued that end-users in Low and Middle-Income Countries (LMIC) are unable to fulfil these factors for social, cultural, political, and economic reasons. These factors are: access to the label, appropriate language, adequate literacy level (for reading and comprehension) and access to equipment and facilities. With label information being a poor risk communication vehicle, it is argued that the use of the term “misuse” of pesticides in the literature, by regulators and industry inappropriately apportions blame of poisonings and environmental contamination to end- users. “Misuse” of pesticides should therefore be replaced by "unintended use" to avoid apportioning undue blame to users who do not have access to risk, health and safety information (i.e., right-to-know) and/or are unable to interpret the messages as scientifically-intended (i.e. right to comprehend). | NA – general findings | “Misuse” in the true sense, that is purposively using a pesticide other than its intended purposes does happen but given that most end-users in LMIC cannot read and comprehend the label information the consequence of their actions are often not understood. | NA | NA | Policy paper | NA | NA | NA | NA | NA | NA | A multi-pronged approach is needed to address and promote adequate of achievement of the five factors: 1) Access to label 2) Appropriate language 3) Adequate Literacy Level – reading 4) Adequate Literacy Level – comprehension 5) Access to equipment and facilities. As a first step, highly hazardous pesticides should be replaced when the five factors cannot be addressed. The question of the purpose of the label needs to be evaluated. Furthermore, given the low level of effectiveness of pesticide labels as a risk communications tool, risk reduction should move higher up at the legislative level. That is, highly hazardous pesticides should be substituted with less toxic products and pest management approaches (e.g., agroecology) to lessen the negative impact of unintended uses. | Peer reviewed – policy | ||||
| Scheepers L, Freercks R, & Van der Merwe E. | Acute cypermethrin and other pyrethroid poisoning – An organophosphate-like poisoning: A case report and review | 2023 | Toxicology Reports Vol. 11, December 2023: 107-110 | Faculty of Health Sciences, Department of Medicine, Nelson Mandela University; Department of Adult Critical Care, Livingstone Tertiary Hospital; Faculty Health Sciences, Dept of Medicine, Nelson Mandela University, Gqeberha, Eastern Cape, SA. | Background: SA is one of the largest importers of pesticides in Africa. Pesticides play an integral role in food security and ensuring economic survival. Cypermethrin is a type II pyrethroid and is commonly and widely used as an insecticide. Poisoning arises from exposure through inhalation, skin contact or ingestion. Its toxic effects manifest predominantly as neurological and gastrointestinal symptoms. Severe pyrethroid poisonings are rare but can present as an organophosphate-like toxidrome. This poses a diagnostic conundrum. Case report: This case concerns a 36-year-old male from a rural town in the Eastern Cape province of SA, who was diagnosed with intentional cypermethrin poisoning after a suicide attempt. He was initially diagnosed as a suspected organophosphate poisoning with coma. He made a full recovery after mechanical ventilation and symptomatic treatment with a low dose muscarinic antagonist, atropine sulphate. Conclusions: With the ease of over-the-counter procurement, cypermethrin and other pyrethroid poisonings pose an increasing diagnostic dilemma to frontline and critical care personnel. This case report intends to raise awareness about the organophosphate-like toxidrome at presentation and the potential complications of high dose atropine treatment, commonly used to treat organophosphate poisoning. The treatment of cypermethrin is largely supportive with dermal decontamination of skin as an essential component. Low dose atropine may be utilized if required. | Cypermethrin | With the ease of over-the-counter procurement, cypermethrin and other pyrethroid poisonings pose an increasing diagnostic dilemma to frontline and critical care personnel. This case report intends to raise awareness about the organophosphate-like toxidrome at presentation and the potential complications of high dose atropine treatment, commonly used to treat organophosphate poisoning. | Unspecified | Livingstone Tertiary Hospital, Gqeberha, Eastern Cape, SA | Case study (hospital observation) | Agriculture (crop protection) | Self-harm after intentional ingestion of cypermethrin that presented as a suspected organophosphate poisoning. Systemic intoxication from high doses or ingestion manifest as neurological symptoms (tremors, fasciculations, seizures and coma) and gastrointestinal symptoms (nausea, gastrointestinal irritation, and vomiting). | Residential study | Oral | NA | NA | NA | Medical recommendations: In the intoxicated individual with systemic symptoms, the focus should be on stabilizing the patient through optimization of the airway, breathing and circulation. This may include hemodynamic stabilization with intravenous fluid resuscitation where appropriate, oxygen supplementation and reduction of absorption by decontamination and enhanced elimination. Following ingestion, activated charcoal (50–100 g for an adult) should be considered if within one hour of ingestion. Gastric lavage is contraindicated, as most formulations contain solvents that can cause chemical pneumonitis. In the event of hypersalivation and pulmonary oedema, low doses of intravenous (IV) atropine sulphate (0.6–1.2 mg) have been used effectively. However, high doses of atropine sulphate, as is used in organophosphate poisoning, have resulted in atropine poisoning and even death. Isolated brief seizures may not require treatment, but the treatment of prolonged convulsions is intravenous (IV) diazepam (5–10 mg). A Cochrane review demonstrated that IV lorazepam is superior to IV diazepam for aborting seizures and is therefore recommended for the treatment of prolonged seizures. For patients who developed status epilepticus, IV phenobarbital was superior to IV phenytoin in a recent animal study. | Peer reviewed – human harm | |||
| Schulz R, Peal S, Dabrowski JM, & Reinecke AJ. | Spray Deposition of Two Insecticides into Surface Waters in a South African Orchard Area | 2001 | Journal of Environmental Quality 30(3):814-22 | Institute of Environmental Sciences at the Landau Campus of the University of Kaiserslautern-Landau (RPTU) Germany; Freshwater Research Centre. Stellenbosch University; Hearshaw and Kinnes Analytical Laboratory (HKAL), Cape Town, SA. | Drift from pesticide spray application can result in contamination of nontarget environments such as surface waters. Azinphos-methyl (AZI) and endosulfan (END) deposition in containers of water was studied in fruit orchards in the Western Cape, SA. Additionally, attention was given to the contamination in farm streams, as well as to the resulting contamination of the subsequent main channel (Lourens River) approx. 25 km downstream of the tributary stream inlets. Spray deposit decreased with increasing distance downwind and ranged from 4.7 mg m(-2) within the target area to 0.2 mg m(-2) at 15 m downwind (AZI). Measured in-stream concentrations of both pesticides compared well with theoretical values calculated from deposition data for the respective distances. Furthermore, they were in the range of values predicted by an exposure assessment based on 95th-percentile values for basic drift deposition (German Federal Biological Research Centre for Agriculture and Forestry [BBA] and USEPA). Pesticide deposition in the tributaries was followed by a measurable increase of contamination in the Lourens River. Mortality of midges (Chironomus spp.) exposed for 24 h to samples obtained from the AZI trials decreased with decreasing concentrations (estimated LC50 from field samples = 10 microg L(-1) AZI; lethal distance: LD50 = 13 m). Mortality in the tributary samples averaged 11% (0.5-1.7 microg L(-1) AZI), while no mortality was discernible in the Lourens River samples (0.041 microg L(-1)). The sublethal endpoint failure to form tubes from the glass beads provided was significantly increased at all sites in comparison with the control (analysis of variance [ANOVA], Fisher's protected least significant difference [PLSD], p < 0.01). | Azinphos-methyl Endosulfan | Pesticide deposition in the tributaries was followed by a measurable increase of contamination in the Lourens River. Mortality of midges (Chironomus spp.) exposed for 24 h to samples obtained from the AZI trials decreased with decreasing concentrations (estimated LC50 from field samples = 10 microg L(-1) AZI; lethal distance: LD50 = 13 m). Mortality in the tributary samples averaged 11% (0.5-1.7 microg L(-1) AZI), while no mortality was discernible in the Lourens River samples (0.041 microg L(-1)). | 1999 | Spray drift from fruit orchards near Lourens River, in the Western Cape, SA. | Four trials with application of AZI to bearing pear orchards (average tree height: 6 m) were investigated. Spray deposition during applications was studied at orchard plots adjacent to 2 different tributaries of the Lourens river situated down wind of the plots. Drift deposit was sampled at distance of 0,5, 10 and 15 m downwind from the edge of the treated area during the AZI spraying and only during the END spray application. The drift deposit collectors consisted of acetone- and dismacrophytes, with tilled water rinsed flat straight-sided glass bowls containing 300 mL of distilled water and providing a surface area of 75cm2 at a water. Analysis was performed at the Forensic Chemistry Laboratory of the Department of National Health, Cape Town. | Agriculture (crop protection) | NA | NA | NA | Spray drift and runoff | Contamination of non-target environments such as surface waters via spray drift. Contamination in farm streams, as well as the resulting contamination of the subsequent main channel approx. 25 km downstream of the tributary stream inlets. Mortality of midges (Chironomus spp.). It follows from the results with field samples that mortality of 50% occurred at an estimated concentration of approximately 10 mg L21, which equals a distance of approximately 13 m downwind from the edge of the sprayed area. | Fresh water | Ecological effects of spray drift from silvicultural aerial applications in Western Cape rivers have to be considered carefully since many of the aquatic invertebrate and fish species present in the rivers are endemic to a relatively small area and their extinction cannot be compensated by recolonization from other regions. | Peer reviewed – environmental harm | |||
| Stephen C, Ragins, K, Mohamed F, & Du Plessis C. | An analysis of pesticide exposures reported to a poison control centre in SA over a 3-year period | 2018 | Proceedings of the 17th APAMT November 2018 | Red Cross War Memorial Children’s Hospital Poisons Information Centre, University of Cape Town, Cape Town, SA; Department of Emergency Medicine, University of California, Los Angeles, CA, USA; and Tygerberg Poisons Information Centre, Stellenbosch University, Cape Town, SA. | There are 10 poison information centres recognised by the World Health Organisation across the 54 countries in sub-Saharan Africa (SSA). In comparison, many countries in other regions of the world, especially high-income countries, have a poison information centre in every major city. As a result, relatively little is known about the characteristics of calls received by poison information centres in SSA or the epidemiology of poisonings as a source of morbidity and mortality in the region. This study provides an analysis of the largest known database of calls to a poison information centre in SA to determine the burden of calls related to pesticide exposures. Methods: The Poisons Information Helpline (PIH) of the Western Cape in SA is a combined service provided by the Red Cross War Memorial Children’s Hospital Poisons Information Centre and the Tygerberg Poisons Information Centre. It provides a 24-h, 7 days-a-week hotline that can be reached by members of the general public and health professionals for help with managing poisonings. An electronic database recording all calls to the PIH has been maintained since mid-2015. All call data from June 2015 to May 2018 were retrospectively analysed for calls related to substances classified as pesticides. Results: During the 3-year period, 28,561 human-related poisoning calls were received by the PIH. Of these, 3724 (13.0%) described poisonings with insecticides or rodenticides, while 453 (1.6%) described poisoning with herbicides or fungicides. Over the study period, these ratios have been relatively constant, with a range of 15.3–11.7% of the calls in any given year describing poisonings with substances classified as insecticides and rodenticides, and a range of 1.4–1.7% of the calls in any given year describing poisonings with substances classified as herbicides or fungicides. Conclusion: This epidemiological description of pesticide exposures reported to poison information centres in SA represents a description of the largest dataset of poisoning information from a SSA country ever published. Our results indicate that pesticide exposures constitute a substantial percentage of the call burden received by the PIH in SA. Additional research is needed to determine if these figures are typical of the experience in poison information centres in other SSA countries and whether any regulatory efforts have been effective in reducing these numbers in low- and middle-income country settings. | Unspecified insecticides, herbicides & rodenticides. | During the 3-year period, 28,561 human-related poisoning calls were received by the PIH. Of these, 3724 (13.0%) described poisonings with insecticides or rodenticides, while 453 (1.6%) described poisoning with herbicides or fungicides. | June 2015 to May 2018 | Red Cross War Memorial Children’s Hospital Poisons Information Centre and the Tygerberg Poisons Information Centre. | Analysis of all electronic database recording all calls to the Poisons Information Centre which has been maintained since mid-2015. All call data from June 2015 to May 2018 were retrospectively analysed for calls related to substances classified as pesticides. | Domestic use (rodent & insect control; herbicide) | Poisoning | Residential study | Pesticide Ingestion | NA | NA | NA | NA | Peer reviewed – human harm | |||
| Swartz A, Levine S, Rother H, Langerman F | Toxic layering through three disciplinary lenses: childhood poisoning and street pesticide use in Cape Town, SA | 2018 | Med Humanit, 2018 Dec;44(4): 247-252 | Division of Social and Behavioural Sciences, School of Public Health and Family Medicine, University of Cape Town, Cape Town, SA 2 School of African and Gender Studies, Anthropology and Linguistics, University of Cape Town, Cape Town, SA 3 Division of Environmental Health, School of Public Health and Family Medicine, University of Cape Town, Cape Town, SA 4 Michaelis School of Fine Art, University of Cape Town, Cape Town, SA | This article focuses on the devastating hidden perils of agricultural pesticides repurposed by informal sellers in urban South African townships to kill rats and other unwanted pests. Drawing on collaborative research techniques, we investigate the causal relationship between child poisoning episodes and the household use of illegal street pesticides. Such pesticides are used to safeguard homes from pests in an attempt to protect children from the harmful consequences of rodent bites and vector borne diseases. Here, we consider the social injustice and economic inequality of episodes of child pesticide poisoning in the Western Cape from three disciplinary perspectives: public health, medical anthropology and fine art. We ultimately seek to demonstrate the complex relationship between the political economy of sanitation, waste removal and insecure housing, and the proliferation of rodents and other pests in urban townships. As a contribution to the medical humanities, the paper leans into different disciplines to highlight the toxic layering at play in a child pesticide poisoning event. The public health perspective focuses on the circulation of illegal street pesticides, the anthropologists focus on the experiences of the children and caregivers who are victims of poisoning, and the fine artist centres the rat within a broader environmental context. While non-toxic methods to eliminate rats and household pests are critical, longer term structural changes, through environmental and human rights activism, are necessary to ameliorate the suffering caused by poisoning. The medical and health humanities is well poised to highlight creative ways to draw public attention to these challenges, as well as to bridge the divide between science and the humanities through collaborative research efforts. With this paper we set the stage for discussing and balancing perspectives when addressing pest control in poor urban communities. | Aldicarb, unlabelled street pesticides | Drawing on collaborative research techniques, we investigate the causal relationship between child poisoning episodes and the household use of illegal street pesticides. Although different street pesticides (including prepackaged but unregistered products) circulate in township spaces, regarding those sold by street vendors, which are usually unlabelled and repackaged agricultural pesticides, 5 Liquid pesticides are diluted with water and sold in beverage containers previously used for water, fruit juice or alcohol. Aldicarb, a highly toxic granular nematicide agricultural pesticide, is sold in small strips of tiny black pellets that are mixed with rice or maize meal for rats to eat. Unlike registered pesticides, street pesticides have no hazard and toxicity warnings on their containers. In South Africa, the active ingredients in street pesticides are registered for agricultural use in food production but due to their high toxicity, such substances are not registered for domestic use. | May to July 2008 | Western Cape | From three disciplinary perspectives: public health, medical anthropology and fine art. Using ethnographic research, the bulk of the data was collected through participant observation. | Pesticide usage | Child poizoning | Residential study | Oral | NA | NA | NA | This article has brought into focus the imperative for collaboration and the value of using the medical and health humanities as a framework through whichto think through these challenges. | The study calls for bridging the divide between science and the humanities through collaborative research efforts. This paper sets the stage for discussion and need to balance perspectives when addressing pest control in poor urban communities and consider the social injustice and economic inequality of episodes of child pesticide poisoning, | Peer reviewed – human harm | ||
| Tolosana S, Rother H-A, & London L. | Child’s play: Exposure to household pesticide use amongchildren in rural, urban and informal areas of SA | 2009 | S Afr Med J 2009; 99: 180-184. | Occupational and Environmental Health Research Unit, School of Public Health Family Medicine, University of Cape Town | Background. As part of a larger dermatological investigation undertaken in 1999-2001 involving the Department of Dermatology, Groote Schuur Hospital (Cape Town, South Africa) and Nottingham University (UK), household pesticide use was investigated among Xhosa-speaking families living in three areas in SA (a rural area, an urban township and an informal settlement). Objectives: The aim was to characterise pesticide use patterns and potential exposures through skin absorption, ingestion and inhalation for this group of South African children. Methods: A standardised questionnaire, which included a section investigating household pesticide use, was administered by four trained fieldworkers to the parents/ guardians of the 740 children (25%) aged between 3 and 11 years identified as having atopic dermatitis either by clinical examination or according to the UK criteria (rural N=387, urban N=292, informal N=61). Results: Of the children with atopic dermatitis, 539 (73%) had been exposed to household pesticides. Most childhood exposure (89%) occurred in the informal settlements, followed by 78% in the urban area and 63% in the rural area. Conclusions: This research highlighted considerable home environment pesticide exposure of South African children in lower socio-economic groups in rural, urban and informal areas. As children are particularly vulnerable to the short- and long-term health effects of pesticide exposure, further in-depth investigation is needed to ascertain and document the health effects associated with such exposure in the home. | Chlorpyrifos Carbaryl Lindane Deltamethrin DDT Cyphenothrin Imiprothrin'allethrin Parathion Difethialone d-trans Allethrin Carbolic acid | Household pesticide products to which study children living in rural, urban township and informal settlements are commonly exposed: Chlorpyrifos (Baygon), Carbaryl/gamma-BHC (Blue death), Deltamethrin (Cockroach Chalk), DDT, Cyphenothrin/imiprothrind’allethri (Fastkill, Raid), Parathion, Difethialone (Rattex), d-trans allethrin (Target), Carbolic acid (Jeyes fluid). Results: Of the children with atopic dermatitis, 539 (73%) had been exposed to household pesticides. Most childhood exposure (89%) occurred in the informal settlements, followed by 78% in the urban area and 63% in the rural area. In total, 73% of children were reported to live in homes where pesticides were used. Besides Doom and Fastkill, Target was a popular pesticide in the urban township, and Fastkill was most commonly used in the rural area. This research highlighted considerable home environment pesticide exposure of South African children in lower socio-economic groups in rural, urban and informal areas. | 1999-2001 | Three areas in SA: a rural area in the Eastern Cape (randomly selected villages or settlements within a 50 km radius of a hospital in the Transkei area), an established urban township, and two informal settlements in the Western Cape. | A standardised questionnaire, which included a section investigating household pesticide use, was administered by four trained fieldworkers to the parents/guardians of the 740 children (25%) aged between 3 and 11 years identified as having atopic dermatitis either by clinical examination or according to the UK criteria (rural N=387, urban N=292, informal N=61). | Domestic use (rodent & insect control; herbicide) | Potential exposures through skin absorption, ingestion and inhalation: Childhood exposure to pesticides is of concern internationally and in SA, as health hazards associated with household pesticide use can be severe and cause long-term developmental effects. Children who live in farming communities are furthermore exposed to both agricultural and household pesticides. | Residential study | Several | NA | NA | NA | Child exposure risks must be highlighted to all child carers in SA, as with better understanding adults become a vital link in risk reduction. Education programmes are also needed to create an understanding of hazard warnings on pesticide labels and improve risk awareness, particularly in vulnerable populations. Policy needs to be redrafted to include child-specific legislation to take into account the special vulnerabilities of this age group. | Research and interventions are needed into cost-effective and readily available alternative methods of pest eradication in the home. It is therefore imperative that a more comprehensive exposure and assessment of health risks to children be undertaken. | Peer reviewed – human harm | ||
| Utyasheva L, Rother HA, London L & Eddleston M. | Stop blaming the farmer: Dispelling the myths of ‘misuse’ and ‘safe’ use of pesticides to protect health and human rights | 2024 | Journal of Human Rights, 23:3, 231-252 | University of Edinburgh & University of Cape Town. | The negative effects of pesticide use in low- and middle-income countries (LMICs) are often blamed on the “misuse” of pesticides. The industry and government narrative is that the use of highly hazardous pesticides is safe when instructions are followed, and that harm occurs due to “irrational” and “improper” human behavior, linked to lack of knowledge by farmers. This assumption does not consider the real-life situations of pesticide users in LMICs, including structural, economic, and social barriers that make it impossible to follow “safety practices.” This “blame the farmer” narrative leads to ineffective risk mitigation measures, perpetuating and increasing people’s exposure to pesticide harms and endangering their lives. It is governments that allow the use of highly hazardous pesticides in their jurisdictions, and pesticide companies that produce them –not individual pesticide users in LMICs – who should bear the main responsibility for the prevention of the negative impact of these products. A human rights-based approach to pesticide management and the interpretation of international guidance that avoids the blaming narrative but puts real people, their health, and human rights first is needed to reduce and eliminate toxic exposure and save lives and health. | General | It is governments that allow the use of highly hazardous pesticides in their jurisdictions, and pesticide companies that produce them – not individual pesticide users in LMICs – who should bear the main responsibility for the prevention of the negative impact of these products. | NA | NA | NA | NA | NA | NA | NA | NA | NA | NA | Protection, fulfillment, and respect for human rights in relation to pesticide management will help the implementation of all Sustainable Development Goals, particularly the ones directly related to health and toxic chemicals, including addressing pesticide poisoning. | Peer reviewed – policy | |||
| Bollmohr S, van den Brink P, Wade P, Day J,& Schulz R. | Spatial and temporal variability in particle-bound pesticide exposure and theireffects on benthic community structure in a temporarily open estuary | 2008 | Estuarine, Coastal and Shelf Science, Vol 82, Issue 1, 20 March 2009: 50-60 | Freshwater Research Unit, University of Cape Town; Institute for Environmental Sciences, University Koblenz-Landau, Germany; Centre for Water and Climate, Wageningen University; Research Centre, The Netherlands; Department of Aquatic Ecology and Water Quality Management, Wageningen University and Research Centre, The Netherlands, & Environmental Geoscience Unit, Council for Geoscience, SA. | Spatial and temporal variations in particle-bound pesticide contamination, natural environmental vari- ables, and benthic abundance were measured during the dry summer season within a temporarily open estuary (Lourens River). This study focused on the effect of particle-associated pesticides on the dynamics of the benthic community (including epi-benthic, hyper-benthic, and demersal organisms) by comparing two runoff events, differing in their change in pesticide concentration and environmental variables. | Chlorpyrifos Endosulfan Cypermethrin | This study focused on the effect of particle-associated pesticides on the dynamics of the benthic community (including epi-benthic, hyper-benthic, and demersal organisms) by comparing two runoff events, | Nov 2002– March 2003 | Lourens River Western Cape | Water samples analysed at the Forensic Chemistry Laboratory, Department of National Health, Cape Town. | Agriculture (crop protection) | NA | NA | Due to the long term exposure of pesticides with toxicologically relevant concentrations it remains difficult to determine any acute effect towards the dynamic of already adapted meiobenthos community. Furthermore, the generally low biodiversity index suggests a rather chronic than acute effect on the system. | Water | |||||||
| London L, Flisher A, Wesseling C, Mergler D, & Kromhout H. | Suicide and Exposure to Organophosphate Insecticides: Cause or Effect? | 2005 | American Journal of Industrial Medicine 47(4):308 - 321 Wiley InterScience | Occupational and Environmental Health Research Unit, School of Public Health and Family Medicine, University of Cape Town; Department of Psychiatry and Mental Health and Adolescent Health Research Institute, UCT, SA; Institute for Studies on Toxic Substances, Universidad Nacional, Costa Rica; University of Quebec,Montreal, Canada; & Institute for Risk Assessment Sciences, Utrecht University, The Netherlands | Suicide rates are high in farming populations. Animal studies link exposure to serotonin disturbances in the central nervous system, which are implicated in depression and suicide in humans. Epidemiological studies conclude that acute and chronic organophosphate (OP) exposure is associated with affective disorders. Case series and ecological studies also support a causal association between OP use and suicide. Conclusions OPs are not only agents for suicide. They may be part of the causal pathway. Emphasizing OPs solely as agents for suicide shifts responsibility for prevention to the individual, reducing corporate responsibility and limiting policy options available for control. | Organophosphates | A literature review of mortality and morbidity studies related to suicide among pesticide-exposed populations, and of human and animal studies of central nervous system toxicity related to organophosphate (OP) pesticides was performed. | Literature | NA | Animal studies link OP exposure to serotonin disturbances in the central nervous system, which are implicated in depression and suicide in humans. | NA | Oral | NA | Case series and ecological studies also support a causal association between OP use and suicide. | Route of exposure (environmental) | OPs are not only agents for suicide. They may be part of the causal pathway. Emphasizing OPs solely as agents for suicide shifts responsibility for prevention to the individual, reducing corporate responsibility and limiting policy options available for control. | Rigorous epidemiological studies with stronger study designs are, therefore, needed to evaluate the potential relationship between exposure to OPs and suicide. Key to these studies would be careful exposure characterization that has high specificity for OP exposure, which readily distinguishes short- and long-term exposure. | Peer reviewed – human harm | ||||
| London L & Rother H-A. | People, pesticides, and the environment: who bears the brunt of backward policy in SA? | 2000 | Presented to the Environmental Law Conference | Danish Cooperation for Environment and Development (DANCED), the South African Medical Research Council (MRC), and the Health Policy Coordinating Unit. | Whereas international trends show that many developed countries are adopting policies that promote pesticide reduction, use of pesticides in SA continues to expand. In particular, macroeconomic policies encourage pesticides use among emergent small-scale black farmers, while potential exposures of workers on commercial farms remain high. Despite having legal controls that seem to conform to international standards, the present health and environmental impacts of pesticide use in SA are substantial and generally underestimated. The reasons lie in the fragmentation of regulatory mechanisms as well as the absence of public awareness and participation in policy-making related to pesticides. Failure to enforce existing legislation, an ambivalent relationship between government and industry, and the existence of a “pesticide culture” will continue to prevent implementation of meaningful control measures. | About 100 to 200 cases of pesticide poisoning are reported every year to the Department of Health, the majority involving farm workers or rural residents, with children forming a large group of victims. However, a number of surveys have shown that the true rates are anything between 5 and 20 times higher. | Literature | NA | NA | Several | NA | In the context of an abundance of policy processes evident in SA at the present moment, particularly in the area of environmental policy, a host of opportunities exist for change in pesticide policy. | The institutions that control pesticide registration need restructuring in a number of ways. Greater public participation in the registration processes, particularly by representatives of end-users most directly affected by the hazards of pesticides, is required. In this way, the registration process could be more sensitive to the very real constraints facing end-users rather than rely on a notional conception of optimal field conditions as the basis for registration. In addition, regulation could take particular account of vulnerable sub-groups such as children, women, the elderly and malnourished populations who may require additional measures to safeguard their health. A reformed registration process could also more effectively explore how best to implement restrictions on the most hazardous chemicals that would both protect vulnerable end-users as well as protect emergent farmers’ market competitiveness. Greater transparency in decision-making and in providing information on which decisions are made will help to change the present culture. The institutional placement of the registering body should ensure that its role as guardian of the public’s interest be separated from economic motives to promote agricultural production. | Report/working paper/book – policy | ||||||||
| Rother H-A. | South African farm workers’ interpretation of risk assessment data expressedas pictograms on pesticide labels | 2008 | Environmental Research 108(3):419-27 | Occupational and Environmental Health Research Unit, School of Public Health and Family Medicine, University of Cape Town | Pesticide companies and regulators in developing countries use the FAO recommended pictograms on pesticide labels to communicate risk information based on toxicological and environmental risk assessment data. The pesticide label not only is often the only access people have to pesticide risk information, but also in many countries is a legally binding document. As a result of the crucial role pesticide labels play in protecting health and the environment and as a legal instrument, pictograms are used to overcome literacy challenges in transmitting pesticide risk information. Yet, this risk communication tool is often prone to misinterpretations of the risk information which results in hazardous exposures to pesticides for farm workers and end-users generally. In this paper, results are presented from a study with 115 farm workers on commercial vineyards in the Western Cape, SA, assessing their interpretations of 10 commonly used pictograms. A standardized questionnaire based on four commonly used pesticide labels was administered. Overall, 50% or more of the study farm workers had misleading, incorrect and critically confused interpretations of the label pictograms. Interpretations often reflected farm workers’ social and cultural frames of reference rather than the technically intended risk information. | In this paper, results are presented from a study with 115 farm workers on commercial vineyards in the Western Cape, SA, assessing their interpretations of 10 commonly used pictograms. A standardized questionnaire based on four commonly used pesticide labels was administered. Overall, 50% or more of the study farm workers had misleading, incorrect and critically confused interpretations of the label pictograms. Interpretations often reflected farm workers’ social and cultural frames of reference rather than the technically intended risk information. | March to May 2003 | Western Cape, SA. | Survey with farm workers working on commercial grape farms. The sample consisted of 115 farm workers. | NA | Merely providing risk assessment derived information in a pictogram does not ensure that an end-user will interpret the message as intended and be able to make risk decisions which mitigate risks from exposures to pesticides or chemicals in general. | Workplace study | Several | Route of exposure (environmental) | These findings challenge the viability of the United Nations current initiative to globally harmonize pictograms used on all chemical labels under the new Globally Harmonized System for the Classification and Labelling of Chemicals (GHS). Particularly as the GHS pictograms were not piloted prior to adoption of the system and represent complex risk assessment data such as chronic hazards. | Public health and pesticide policy, backed by relevant research, need to address developing applicable and effective pesticide risk communication tools, particularly for developing country populations. | Peer reviewed – policy | |||||
| Rother H-A. | Pesticide Vendors in theInformal Sector: TradingHealth for Income | 2016 | New Solutions: A Journal of Environmental and Occupational Health Policy. 2016;26(2):241-252 | Urban Environmental Management Programme, Danish International Development Agency (DANIDA) in cooperation with the South African National Department of Health and South African Medical Research Council | South African low-income communities face many challenges (e.g., insufficient housing, poor service delivery, and abject poverty); additionally, a silent challenge of pest infestation plagues these areas resulting in disease risks, nuisances, and stigma. Consequently, an enterprising urban informal sector business has emerged providing residents with highly toxic, effective, cheap, and illegal “street pesticides.” These pesticides pose acute and chronic health risks for vendors and residents. The economic opportunity provided by the high demand for effective and cheap pest control results in the high risk of health effects being traded for income | Methamidophos Chlorpyrifos Cypermethrin Aldicarb | Based on laboratory analysis of 20 South African street pesticides, the main active ingredients identified were from the chemical groups organophosphates. | Between 2006 and 2015 | Predominantly SA | Literature, and personal communications and observations with residents in low-income households, community NGOs, and government officials and inspectors in SA and from various African countries; research conducted in SA by the author. | The chronic effects range from neurotoxic, reproductive toxic, developmental toxic, and dermatoxic to causing cancers. | Workplace study | Several | Route of exposure (environmental) | Although the law is intended to apply to all work settings, enforcement is lacking in the informal sector. Policies related to poverty alleviation, housing, climate change, Small-Medium Enterprises, informal sector, and service delivery, to name a few, all need to include addressing pest control in a manner that is sustainable and economically viable for vendors. | Peer reviewed – human harm | ||||||
| Veludo AF, Figueiredo DM, Degrendele C, Masinyana L, Curchod L, Kohoutek J, Kukučka P, Martiník J, Přibylová P, Klánová J, Dalvie, MA, Röösli M, & Fuhrimann S. | Seasonal variations in air concentrations of 27 organochlorine pesticides (OCPs) and 25 current-use pesticides (CUPs) across three agricultural areas of SA. | 2022 | Chemosphere Vol 289, February 2022, 133162 | Institute for Risk Assessment Sciences (IRAS), Utrecht University, The Netherland; Recetox, Faculty of Science, Masaryk University, Czech Republic; Aix-Marseille University, CNRS, France; Centre for Environmental and Occupational Health Research, School of Public Health and Family Medicine, University of Cape Town, SA; Swiss Tropical and Public Health Institute (Swiss TPH); & University of Basel, Switzerland. | For decades pesticides have been used in agriculture, however, the occurrence of legacy organochlorine pesticides (OCPs) and current-use pesticides (CUPs) is poorly understood in Africa. This study investigates air concentrations of OCPs and CUPs in three South African agricultural areas, their spatial/seasonal variations and mixture profiles. Between 2017 and 2018, 54 polyurethane foam-disks passive air-samplers (PUF-PAS) were positioned in three agricultural areas of the Western Cape, producing mainly apples, table grapes and wheat. Within areas, 25 CUPs were measured at two sites (farm and village), and 27 OCPs at one site (farm). Kruskal-Wallis tests investigated area differences in OCPs concentrations, and linear mixed-effect models studied differences in CUPs concentrations between areas, sites and sampling rounds. In total, 20 OCPs and 16 CUPs were detected. A median of 16 OCPs and 10 CUPs were detected per sample, making a total of 11 OCPs and 24 CUPs combinations. Eight OCPs (trans-chlordane, o,p’-/p,p’-dichlorodiphenyldichloroethylene (DDE) / dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane (DDT), endosulfan sulfate, γ-hexachlorocyclohexane and mirex) and two CUPs (carbaryl and chlorpyrifos) were quantified in all samples. p,p’-DDE (median 0.14 ng/m3) and chlorpyrifos (median 0.70 ng/m3) showed the highest concentrations throughout the study. Several OCPs and CUPs showed different concentrations between areas and seasons, although CUPs concentrations did not differ between sites. OCPs ratios suggest ongoing chlordane use in the region, while DDT and endosulfan contamination result from past-use. Our study revealed spatial and seasonal variations of different OCPs and CUPs combinations detected in air. Further studies are needed to investigate the potential cumulative or synergistic risks of the detected pesticides. | DDE DDT Chlordane Endosulfan sulfate Carbaryl Chlorpyrifos | Overall, 21 organochlorine (OCPs) and 16 current-use pesticides (CUPs) were detected. p,p’-DDE (median 0.14 ng/m3) and chlorpyrifos (median 0.70 ng/m3) showed the highest concentrations throughout the study. OCPs ratios suggest ongoing chlordane use in the region, while DDT and endosulfan contamination result from past-use. This not only highlights the heavy use of technical DDT and lindane in the past but further emphasizes the still considerable contamination in the region. Pesticide occurrence varies between areas with different crop production systems, although CUPs' concentrations did not differ between “farm” and “village”, which might result from atmospheric transport of pesticides from nearby farms. The main concern of pesticide mixtures (either OCPs/organophosphates or other CUP mixtures) is their potential deleterious cumulative and synergistic effects on accidental targets (such as humans), which is so far poorly understood. Air concentrations of pesticides varied according to farming area and seasons. | 2017 - 2018 | Air concentrations of OCPs and CUPs in three South African agricultural areas (Western Cape):Grabouw (pome fruits 81% of the agricultural land use); Hex River Valley(table grapes 98% of the agricultural land use); and Piketberg (cereals 56% of the agricultural land use). | This study is part of the ongoing “Child health Agricultural Pesticide cohort study in SA” (CapSA) project, which aim is to determine the association between agricultural pesticide exposure and its consequent health effects on 1,000 children. 54 polyurethane foam-disks passive air-samplers (PUF-PAS) were positioned in three agricultural areas of the Western Cape, producing mainly apples, table grapes and wheat. Within areas, 25 CUPs were measured at two sites (farm and village), and 27 OCPs at one site (farm). Kruskal-Wallis tests investigated area differences in OCPs concentrations, and linear mixed-effect models studied differences in CUPs concentrations between areas, sites and sampling rounds. | Agriculture (crop protection) | Deleterious cumulative and synergistic effects . | NA | Atmospheric | Spray drift | NA | Air | The joint and persistent detection of multiple pesticides in the group of OCPs, organophosphates, carbamates, triazines, chloracetamides and triazoles raise concerns for potential cumulative and synergistic health effects of these mixtures and should be further evaluated. | Further studies are needed to investigate the potential cumulative or synergistic risks of the detected pesticides. | Peer reviewed – environmental harm | ||
| Veludo AF, Röösli M, Dalvie MA, Stuchlík Fišerová P, Prokeš R, Přibylová P, Šenk P, Kohoutek J, Mugari M, Klánová J, Huss A, Figueiredo DM, Mol H, Dias J , Degrendele C & Fuhrimann S. | Child exposure to organophosphate and pyrethroid insecticides measured in urine, wristbands, and household dust and its implications for child health in SAA panel study | 2024 | Environ Epidemiol. 2023 Dec 29;8(1):e282 | Swiss Tropical and Public Health Institute (Swiss TPH), Switzerland; University of Basel, Basel, Switzerland; Centre for Environmental and Occupational Health Research, School of Public Health, University of Cape Town; Masaryk University, Faculty of Science, RECETOX, Brno, Czech Republic; Global Change Research Institute of the Czech Academy of Sciences, Brno, Czech Republic; Institute for Risk Assessment Sciences, Utrecht University, The Netherlands; Wageningen Food Safety Research, Wageningen University & Research, The Netherlands; & Aix-Marseille University, CNRS, LCE, France. This project is imbedded within the South Africa-Swiss Bilateral SARChI Chair in Global Environmental Health and supported by the SA National Research Foundation, the Swiss State Secretariat for Education, Research and Innovation (SERI), the University of Basel and the Swiss TPH. Furimann’s effort was supported by a fellowship of the Swiss National Science Foundation. | (This panel study is part of the ongoing “Child Health Agricultural Pesticide Cohort Study in SA” (CapSA) project, which aims to determine the association between agricultural pesticide exposure and its potential health effects on 1000 children). Background: Children in agricultural areas are exposed to organophosphate (OP) and pyrethroid (PYR) insecticides. This explorative study investigated child exposure to OPs and PYRs, comparing temporal and spatial exposure variability within and among urine, wristbands, and dust samples. Methods: During spraying season 2018, 38 South African children in two agricultural areas (Grabouw/Hex River Valley) and settings (farm/village) participated in a seven-day study. Child urine and household dust samples were collected on days 1 and 7. Children and their guardians were wearing silicone wristbands for seven days. Intraclass correlation coefficients (ICCs) evaluated temporal agreements between repeated urine and dust samples, Spearman rank correlations (Rs) evaluated the correlations among matrices, and linear mixed-effect models investigated spatial exposure predictors. A risk assessment was performed using reverse dosimetry. Results: Eighteen OPs/PYRs were targeted in urine, wristbands, and dust. Levels of chlorpyrifos in dust (ICC = 0.92) and diethylphosphate biomarker in urine (ICC = 0.42) showed strong and moderate temporal agreement between day 1 and day 7, respectively. Weak agreements were observed for all others. There was mostly a weak correlation among the three matrices (Rs = −0.12 to 0.35), except for chlorpyrifos in dust and its biomarker 3,5,6-trichloro-2-pyridinol in urine (Rs = 0.44). No differences in exposure levels between living locations were observed. However, 21% of the urine biomarker levels exceeded the health-risk threshold for OP exposure. Conclusions: Observed high short-term variability in exposure levels during spraying season highlights the need for repeated sampling. The weak correlation between the exposure matrices points to different environmental and behavioral exposure pathways. Exceeding risk thresholds for OP should be further investigated. | Pyridinol Chlorpyrifos Diethylphosphate Malathion Diazinon Parathion | The study estimated that several children (21% of our study population) could be at high risk of adverse health effects due to exposure to diazinon, chlorpyrifos, and parathion (HQ > 1) and cumulative exposure to OPs. Although measured levels vary from day 1 to day 7 considerably, for some individuals, their levels were, at both visits, elevated above the risk thresholds for chlorpyrifos, diazinon, and cumulative exposure to OPs. The presented risks of OPs are likely to be underestimated in our study. Details: Based on the urine measurements collected on day 1, five participants were estimated to be above the health-risk thresholds (HQ > 1) due to diazinon exposure and two participants due to chlorpyrifos and parathion exposure. Also, eight children were above health risk thresholds due to cumulative exposure to OPs (HI > 1). On the other hand, using the urine measurements collected on day 7, only three participants were above the threshold. due to single OPs exposure (two due to diazinon exposure and one due to chlorpyrifos exposure). Similarly, the number of children above the health-risk threshold due to cumulative OPs exposure on day 7 decreased to four participants. | 2018 spraying season | Within the Western Cape, two rural study areas were selected based on their different crop profiles: Hex River Valley, with table grapes representing 98% of the agricultural land use, and Grabouw, where pome fruits represent 81% of the agricultural land use. | Out of the CapSA cohort, 40 households were purposely selected alongside the main urine sampling round of all 1000 children to guarantee equal participant numbers living in two agricultural areas. Within each area, half of the households were located on farms (within 50m of agricultural land use) and half in nearby villages (at least 0.5km from the closest agricultural land use). The sampling campaign was conducted in 2018 for over 7 days, during the main pesticide spraying season in Hex River Valley (between the 23 and 29 October) and in Grabouw (between the 31 October and the 6 November). In total, 76 wristbands (38 children and their respective guardians), 76 urine samples (38 on days 1 and 7), and 50 dust samples (12 on day 1 and 38 on day 7) were analyzed. Unfortunately, due to logistical constraints, only a subsample of the household dust samples could be analyzed on day 1. | Agriculture (crop protection) | Children exposure above health risk thresholds – early-life exposure to this chemical group of insecticides has been linked to impaired neurocognitive function and other adverse health effects. | Residential study | Several | Spray drift and fomites | Contamination of air and dust | Air | It is important to improve policies and create awareness to reduce exposure levels in such risk groups. In contrast, single and cumulative exposure to PYRs were not above risk thresholds. This is aligned with what has been reported in Europe, where human biomonitoring data revealed low health concerns related to PYR exposure. | Comparing different exposure matrices enhances the understanding of exposure pathways and how these correlate. Future studies would benefit from multiple urine samples or 24-hour urine collection to bridge exposure window gap between urine biomarkers and wristbands. Additional studies are necessary to understand the main risk factors associated with higher exposure levels. | Peer reviewed – environmental harm |
Here follows a table of all the chemicals studied above, designating their HHP status and whether they are banned in South Africa and/or the EU.
Pesticides studied, with HHP status
| Name | Classified as HHP | Banned in EU | Banned in SA |
|---|---|---|---|
| 2,4,5-T | |||
| 2,4-D | ☣️ | ||
| Acetamiprid | ☣️ | ||
| Acetochlor | ☣️ | 🇪🇺 | |
| Alachlor | ☣️ | 🇪🇺 | |
| Aldicarb | ☣️ | 🇪🇺 | 🇿🇦 |
| Aldrin | ☣️ | 🇿🇦 | |
| Atrazine | ☣️ | 🇪🇺 | |
| Azinphos-methyl | ☣️ | 🇪🇺 | |
| Bisphenol A | |||
| Boscalid | |||
| Bromopropylate | |||
| Butachlor | |||
| Carbamazepine | ☣️ | ||
| Carbaryl | ☣️ | 🇪🇺 | |
| Carbendazim | ☣️ | 🇪🇺 | |
| Carbofuran | ☣️ | 🇪🇺 | |
| Carbolic acid (Jeyes fluid) | |||
| Chlordane | ☣️ | 🇪🇺 | 🇿🇦 |
| Chlorimuron-ethyl | |||
| Chlorotoluron | ☣️ | ||
| Chlorpyrifos | ☣️ | 🇪🇺 | 🇿🇦 |
| Chlorsulfuron | |||
| Cinchonidine | |||
| Clopyralid | |||
| Copper oxychloride | |||
| Cypermethrin | |||
| Cyprodinil | |||
| d-trans-Allethrin (Target) | |||
| Cyphenothrin | |||
| DDE | ☣️ | 🇪🇺 | |
| DDT | ☣️ | 🇪🇺 | |
| Demeton-S-methyl sulphone | |||
| Dialkyl phosphates | |||
| Diazinon | ☣️ | 🇪🇺 | |
| Dicamba | |||
| DDD | |||
| Dichlorvos | ☣️ | 🇪🇺 | |
| Dieldrin | ☣️ | 🇪🇺 | 🇿🇦 |
| Difethialone (Rattex) | ☣️ | 🇪🇺 | |
| Dimethachlor | |||
| Dimethoate | ☣️ | 🇪🇺 | |
| Dimethomorph | ☣️ | 🇪🇺 | |
| Diphenylamine | |||
| Diquat dibromide | ☣️ | 🇪🇺 | |
| Diuron | ☣️ | 🇪🇺 | |
| Endosulfan | ☣️ | 🇪🇺 | 🇿🇦 |
| Endosulfan sulfate | |||
| Endrin | ☣️ | 🇪🇺 | 🇿🇦 |
| Ethylene dibromide | ☣️ | ||
| Fenamiphos | |||
| Fenarimol | |||
| Fenitrothion | ☣️ | 🇪🇺 | |
| Fipronil | |||
| Fluconazole | |||
| Fluroxpyr | |||
| General | |||
| Glufosinate-ammonium | ☣️ | ||
| Glyphosate | ☣️ | ||
| Heptachlor | ☣️ | 🇪🇺 | 🇿🇦 |
| Hexachlorobenzene | ☣️ | 🇪🇺 | 🇿🇦 |
| Hexachlorocyclohexane | |||
| Hexazinone | |||
| Imazalil | ☣️ | ||
| Imidacloprid | ☣️ | 🇪🇺 | |
| Imiprothrin'allethrin | |||
| Iprodione | ☣️ | 🇪🇺 | |
| Isoproturon | |||
| Kresoxim-methyl | ☣️ | ||
| Lindane (gamma-BHC) | ☣️ | 🇪🇺 | 🇿🇦 |
| Malathion | ☣️ | ||
| Mancozeb | ☣️ | 🇪🇺 | |
| MCPA | ☣️ | ||
| Mercaptothion | |||
| Metamitron | |||
| Metazachlor | |||
| Methamidophos | ☣️ | 🇪🇺 | |
| Metolachlor | |||
| Metribuzin | ☣️ | 🇪🇺 | |
| Metsulfuron methyl | |||
| Mirex | |||
| MSMA | |||
| Parathion | |||
| Octachlorostyrene | |||
| p-Nonylphenol | |||
| Paraquat | ☣️ | 🇪🇺 | |
| Parathion-methyl | ☣️ | 🇪🇺 | |
| Penconazole | ☣️ | ||
| Pentachloroanisole | |||
| Pentachlorobenzene | |||
| Pentachlorophenol | |||
| Permethrin | ☣️ | 🇪🇺 | |
| Phenytoin | |||
| Phorate | |||
| Picloram | ☣️ | ||
| Pirimicarb | ☣️ | ||
| Potassium-phosphate | |||
| Potassium-phosphite | |||
| Prochloraz | ☣️ | 🇪🇺 | |
| Prometon | |||
| Prometryn | |||
| Propiconazole | ☣️ | 🇪🇺 | |
| Prothiofos | |||
| Pyrazon | |||
| Pyridinol | |||
| S-ethyl-dipropyl thiocarbamate | |||
| S-metolachlor | |||
| Simazine | ☣️ | 🇪🇺 | |
| Spiroxamine | |||
| Sulphur | |||
| Tebuconazole | ☣️ | ||
| Tebuconazole | |||
| Tebuthiuron | |||
| Telodrin | |||
| Terbufos | ☣️ | 🇪🇺 | 🇿🇦 |
| Terbuthylazine | ☣️ | ||
| Thiabendazole | ☣️ | ||
| Thiacloprid | ☣️ | 🇪🇺 | |
| Toxaphene | |||
| Tributyltin | |||
| Triclopyr | ☣️ | ||
| Trifluralin | ☣️ | 🇪🇺 | |
| γ-Nonachlor |
Acronyms of terms found in the Compendium
| AOR | Adjusted odds ratio |
| BMI | Body mass index |
| CANTAB | Cambridge Neuropsychological Test Automated Battery |
| CapSA | Child Health Agricultural Pesticide Cohort Study in SA |
| CECs | Contaminants of Emerging Concern |
| CR | Cancer risk |
| CSIR | Council for Scientific and Industrial Research |
| CUP | Current-use pesticides |
| ECs | Emerging contaminants |
| ECDs | Endocrine disrupting chemicals |
| EEC | European Commission |
| EEQ | Estradiol equivalents |
| EHO | Environmental health officers |
| EIA | Environmental impact assessment |
| EQS | Environmental Quality Standard |
| FAO | United Nations Food and Agriculture Organisation |
| GBS | Guillain-Barre syndrome |
| GHS | Globally Harmonized System on Classification and Labelling of Chemicals |
| GIS | Geographic information system |
| GMOs | Genetically modified organisms |
| HHPs | Highly hazardous pesticides |
| HI | Handyman and industrial (use) |
| HP | Hazard potential |
| HQ | Hazard quotient |
| HT | Herbicide-tolerant |
| IARC | WHO International Agency for Research on Cancer |
| ILO | International Labour Office |
| IPMI | Integrated pesticide management |
| IRS | Indoor Residual Spraying |
| JEM | Job exposure matrix |
| KOS | Organic Carbon-Water Partition Coefficient |
| LMICs | Low- and middle-income countries |
| LOD | Limits of detection |
| MCCM | Multi-stakeholder Committee on Chemicals Management |
| MRL | Maximum residue level |
| NEMA | SA National Environmental Management Act 107 of 1998 |
| NPS | (Agricultural) nonpoint source pollution |
| NRF | (SA) National Research Foundation |
| NTMP | National Toxicity Monitoring Programme (Dep. of Water and Sanitation) |
| OCPs | Organochlorinated pesticides |
| OP | Organophosphate |
| OPP | Organophosphate poisoning |
| OR | Odds ratio |
| POPs | Persistent organic pollutants |
| PPCPs | Pharmaceuticals and personal care products |
| PPE | Personal protective equipment |
| PP | Predicted Relative Exposure |
| PRRI | Predicted Relative Risk |
| PSS | Poisoning Severity Score |
| PUF-PAS | Polyurethane foam-disks passive air-samplers |
| PYR | Pyrethroid |
| QI | Quantity Index |
| RCWMCH | Red Cross War Memorial Children’s Hospital |
| REBSP | Right to Enjoy the Benefits of Scientific Progress |
| SA | South Africa; South African |
| SDRAT | Spray Drift Risk Assessment Tool |
| STPH | Swiss Tropical and Public Health Institute |
| TP | Toxicity potential |
| UCT | University of Cape Town |
| WHO | World Health Organisation |
| WHP | Weighted hazard potential |
| WRC | Water Research Commission |
| WWTP | Wastewater treatment plant |
[1] https://unpoison.org/wp-content/uploads/2025/02/UnPoison-SA-HHPs-Database-JMPM-criteria_GHS_ECHA_FEBRUARY-2025..pdf
